IRD 100: COMMUNICATION SKILLS 1
INTRODUCTION
Significance of the Communication Skills
Course
§ The courses will equip you with necessary skills for
university education. From research findings, teaching experience and student
reports, we know that students allover the world experience major problems in
coping with their studies at the postsecondary level-particularly university
level. This is due to the difference in study methods used at school and
thtrose used at the tertiary or university level:
-You are left to your own method of study with little
or no supervision from you lecturers.
-The number of students in the class will be so large
that you will not get much individual attention.
-You are expected to do a very large volume of reading
compared to what you did at school.
-The texts you will read will be more difficult than
those you need at school.
-There will be new subjects and new approaches to the
other subjects which will be unfamiliar to you.
-There are many attractions and
distractions hence the need to organise your time very carefully
§ The courses will equip you with the skills necessary
for life outside the university, particularly the job market. Such skills
include reading and writing (e.g. letters, memos and reports), handling
meetings, carrying out research, public speaking, conducting interviews,
conflict resolution, planning strategies, budgeting time and resources. Etc.
WHAT IS
COMMUNICATION?
Communication is derived from the Latin word communicare, which means "to make
common". This can be taken to mean 'to share'. Communication is therefore
generally defined as the process of
understanding and sharing meaning. Communication is considered a process
because it is an activity, an
exchange or a set of behaviours - not an unchanging product.
Communication is a complicated process. It is variable,
active and dynamic. It starts long before the words begin to flow and can
last long after the words stop.
Communication is a process that requires understanding - perceiving,
interpreting, and comprehending the meaning of the verbal and nonverbal
behaviour of others. Understanding the meaning of another person's message does
not occur unless the two communicators can elicit
common meanings for words, phrases and non-verbal codes.
In addition to understanding, communication involves sharing and interaction between people
in order to exchange meaning. Regardless of the context, communication involves
sharing.
The
Components of Communication
- The source Sender
The source (sender) is the component that initiates a
message
- Receiver (Audience)
The receiver is the intended target of the message.
NOTE:
Individuals do not perform these two roles
independently. Instead, they are the source and receiver of messages
simultaneously or continually. People do not respond uniformly to all messages,
nor do they provide the same messages in exactly the same way. Individual
characteristics of people, including their race, gender, age, culture, values
and attitudes affect both their sending and receiving qualities.
- The message (idea)
The message is the verbal and non-verbal form of the
idea, thought, or feeling that one person (source) wishes to communicate to
another person or group of persons (the receiver/s). It is the content of the
interaction. The message includes the symbols (words and phrases) we use to
communicate our ideas as well as our facial expressions, bodily movements,
gestures, touch, tone of voice and other nonverbal codes. The message may be
relatively brief and easy to understand or long and complex. Messages can be intentional or accidental
- The Channel
The channel provides the mode by which a message moves from the source to the receiver of
the message. Examples include the spoken
mode, written mode, diagrams, charts etc.
- Feedback
Feedback is the receiver's verbal and nonverbal
response to the source's message. Feedback is part of the any communication
situation. High-quality communication occurs when the sources is sensitive to
feedback and respond appropriately to verbal and non-verbal messages sent by
the receiver or audience.
- Code
We use codes to share our ideas with others. A code is
a systematic arrangement or comprehensive collection of symbols, letters, or
words that have arbitrary meanings and are used for communication. Two major
types of codes are used in communication: Verbal codes and nonverbal codes. Non
verbal codes consist of all symbols that are not spoken words, including our
bodily movements, our use of space and time, our clothing and other adornments,
and sounds other than words. Non verbal codes should not be confused with
non-oral codes. All non-oral codes such as bodily movement - are non verbal.
Nonverbal codes also include oral codes, such as pitch, duration, and rate of
speech as well as sounds like eh and ah.
The
Communication Process
The process of communication can be viewed as one of
encoding and decoding. Encoding is
defined as the act of putting an idea or a thought into a code. Decoding is assigning meaning to that
idea or thought. The figure below shows a summary of the communication process.
SENDER CHANNEL RECEIVER
(Encoding) (Decoding) |
FEEDBACK
Barriers
in Communication
A
barrier in the communication process is any
interference in the encoding and the
decoding processes that reduce the clarity of a message. It can be
physical, psychological, cultural, or language retained.
i. Physical barriers: Examples include loud sounds,
distracting sights, unusual behaviour, physical appearance etc.
ii. Psychological barriers: Examples include worries,
uncertainties or any other attitudinal or emotional factors.
iii. Cultural barriers: Examples are
cultural differences relating to beliefs and values.
iv, Language barriers: e.g. mother tongue
interference, inadequate vocabulary, inappropriate register, diction, etc.
STUDY SKILLS
Introduction
Studying is the process
that one uses to recall, understand, apply, analyse, synthesize and evaluate
information. While studying, one selects information from the content that
one wants to learn. One should organise this information such that it can be
learnt efficiently and easily. This information should then be committed to
memory so that it can be recalled when it is needed.
Studying requires certain skills so that it is done effectively.
These skills include work planning, managing time and other resources, taking
and making notes, filing, critical thinking and problem solving, among others.
1.
Work Planning
This involves identifying tasks, prioritizing them and
allocating the time and other resources accordingly.
When planning your study schedule, it is important to
consider the time available for the work and the amount to be done. One way of
planning for work is to make a study timetable. Other ways are choosing a
suitable study time, choosing which place to study from, choosing best methods
to study and forming a group.
2
A study time table
When drawing the study time-table,
the following should be considered:
i.
The number of
hours for reading the topics in each course.
ii.
Personal-study
hours
iii.
Discussion hours
iv.
Time for breaks,
recreation, socialization, religious activities or leisure and meals.
v.
Time for personal
work
A good study timetable should have the following
features.
§ It should have all the activities of the day/week
§ It should have the period and amount of time for each
activity.
§ It should be reasonably flexible to allow unexpected
schedules.
§ There should be breaks
§ For academic activities, the time table should show
individual topics but not the whole course.
3 Time of
study
It is not possible to prescribe the best time to study
since it varies from person to person..
Whatever time you study, you should pay attention to
the following:
i)
Physical
fitness/state of your health
ii)
Diet and sleep.
iii)
Regular breaks.
iv)
Variation of
activities.
v)
Complexity or
demands of the task
4 Place for
studies
You should always make an effort to find a convenient
place for studying. Apart from pens and books, you will need a table, a chair,
and good lighting at night. Other factors to be considered include:
i)
A quiet place
with enough air and light
ii)
A table that is
clear of distractions like a newspaper, a radio, etc
iii)
Do not sit on a
sofa set or a bed. You could easily go to sleep.
iv)
If you decide to
read in the sitting room, face the wall and not the people.
v)
Avoid sitting
near a window since you can see what is happening outside and get distracted.
5 Method of
study
For effective studying, you should carry out the
following activities.
i)
Read and make
study notes.
ii)
Take time to
reflect on what you have read. Make an effort to recall the information.
iii)
You should try to
understand and not memorize all that you learn. However, certain information
must be memorised like names, dates and formulae.
iv)
Read widely on
the same subject.
v)
Draw
relationships among content that you read.
vi)
Discuss with your
fellow students or with your lecturers.
6 Study
groups
A study group
has the following advantages.
i)
You can gain from
the planning skills of one another
ii)
You are able to
make use of limited resources like textbooks by sharing within the group.
iii)
You can learn
from one another as well as sort out any queries about the coursework. Ideas
can also be exchanged before writing your assignments.
iv)
You can revise faster for examinations since
you can cover more work as a group than as an individual.
Tips about organising a study group
§ Take turns in
organising and presenting your work.
§ Hold regular meetings.
§ Always plan a head before you leave.
§ Total commitment by all members
§ Remember that not all activities are suitable for a
discussion group.
Perhaps the most serious problem noted in group
discussions is that not all students participate. Lack of participation is
caused by:
§ Shyness
§ Unwillingness to begin
§ Unsuitable topic
§ Lack of similar interests
§ Lack of group leadership e.g. chairman, secretary.
7 Managing
Time and Resources
a)
Managing Time
This involves how best to use the time available for
attending lectures, private study, other activities and relaxation. Managing
time is best done by making a study time table, which helps you distribute time
appropriately for all your tasks. The time table should be realistic and easy
to adhere to. The following are tips for managing time:
i.
Plan for every
day by making a general schedule on things you must accomplish, and things you will try to accomplish.
ii.
Concentrate on
one task at a time
iii.
Take regular
breaks. Take breaks form books and do something unrelated before going back to
read. One study session should be about two hours.
iv.
Quiet and
distraction-free environments.
v.
Do not be a
perfectionist. Striving for perfection leads to frustration and time wasting.
Strive to produce the best you can achieve.
vi.
Learn to say no.
Tactfully but firmly decline to waste time on issues that do not help you to
achieve your goals.
vii.
Do not
procrastinate. What you can do today, do not schedule for tomorrow.
viii.
Avoid time
wasting. Do not participate in activities that simply waste your time e.g. idle
talk and gossip.
ix.
Delegate. Assign
to others duties that they can perform, especially in group work.
x.
Do not be a
workaholic. Give yourself time for socialization, and involve yourself in
hobbies and interests. Too much work may be dangerous.
b)
Managing
Resources
There are many resources available to a student at the
university.
These include:
i.
Books and other
Academic Materials
ii.
Lecturers
iii.
Fellow students
iv.
Outsiders-people
in the ministry, others
v.
Printed and
Electronic Media - Newspapers, Radio, Internet, T.V.
vi.
Money, etc.
These resources can only be beneficial to the student
when they are effectively managed.
8.
Taking and Making Notes
Owing
to the circumstances in which they are usually taken and the purpose for which
we need them, notes are characteristically sketchy and free of such things as too much exemplification
or argumentation. A distinction may be drawn between note-taking and note-making.
Note-taking
This refers to the short summaries
made during lectures, seminars or tutorials. In order to take meaningful notes, you should be aware of
the following.
-Notes are a record of the speaker's
MAIN IDEAS, not a word record.
-Notes should be written in your own
words as much as possible to avoid copying things you do not understand.
-They should be in point form with
clear numbering, using headings and subheadings.
Note-Making
This refers to notes made from
written sources. The points above also apply. The important thing is to be sure you can tell what is really
necessary for you to remember later as
the main points of the author whose work you are reading. The points you may need to note as a reader include.
§ Important facts of statistical data;
§ Useful definitions
§ New technical terms;
§ Some unsightly comments and
§ Some particularly interesting arguments for or against
some idea in your area of study.
Guidelines to Note-Taking
Since it is impossible to record
every word it is important for you to develop economical methods of putting the information you require
down.
a)
Date the page
b)
Record any other
pertinent information you might need
i) Speakers'
name
ii)
Title of the
lecture/speech
iii)
Venue
iv)
Time, etc.
c)
Use symbols
d) Use of
abbreviations
e) Use
acronyms (names formed from the first letters or syllables of other words)
E.g. AGOA African Growth and
opportunity Act
EMU Efficiency Monitoring Unit
Formats
There are many note-taking formats.
Use the form that will help you to review your notes easily. You will need to consider the nature of the content. A note
format for Mathematics will not be the
same as that one of History, Biology, etc. Biology, for example may call for diagrams; Geography for maps, charts,
graphs etc.
NB: Think of how the presenter has ordered the
material. A good lecture or speech has
three distinct parts: the introduction, the body, and the conclusion. Listen to
the main points of the
discussion, which are usually given in the introduction. The body then develops them while the conclusion (among
other functions) sums them up and points forward
to the next step.
Letter
and numeral format
In this format, Arabic numerals and
Roman numerals are used.
I Main
idea
A.
Subordinate idea
1.
Elaboration of A
2.
Elaboration of A
B.
Subordinate idea
1.
Elaboration of B
2.
Elaboration of B
When
Not To Take Notes.
1.
When the speaker
tells you not to write
2.
When the speaker
hands out an outline, notes, or other material and then reads directly from the
handout. In this case you can annotate the handout for any extra details.
3.
When it is very
clear that what is being said is out of topic. For example, a poor presenter
may bring in unrelated issues especially if there is no clear plan or
organisation. At other times the speaker may notice lack of concentration among
some listeners. He/she then cracks a joke to re-establish the listening mood.
Identifying the speakers main points
A speaker may emphasize a point using the
following:
§ Words such as, "…it is very important,
significant" etc.
§ Repetition of certain words e.g. on a topic like
scanning, the word content may be repeated.
§ Gestures and facial expressions.
§ Words that enumerate the main points e.g. first,
secondly etc.
§ Writing main points on the board and even underlining
headings and sub-headings.
§ Emphasis may be through stress and intonation.
Why
write in your own words?
1. The speed of speaking is much greater than that of
writing.
2. If you try to write out everything, you will miss
gestures and facial expressions.
3. Using your own word helps you to interpret the
concepts for yourself.
9. Filing
Filing refers to the arrangement of notes, papers or
documents in a folder or file, in an orderly or systematic manner for easy
retrieval. You can choose to have a file for each course that you are studying.
You can file three or more courses in one file like a
box file since it is very big. In this case, you will separate the different
courses with file dividers
Note.
§ Write the date on each set of notes or handouts
§ File the note, handouts in the order in which they are
written or received.
10. Critical
thinking
This can be defined as disciplined
thinking in accordance with given or accepted principles.
It brings into focus problems and possibilities in learning and thereby makes learning intellectually stimulating. A critical
thinker solves problems with objectivity and maturity.
Because of this, a critical thinker makes considerable generalizations. A
critical thinker sees relationships
in a given phenomenon; hence makes intelligent conclusions.
Characteristics of a critical
thinker
11.
Problem-solving
A problem is a situation which
interferes with efforts to attain a goal. It could be physical, mental, or spiritual. Problem
solving is the process by which interference towards a given goal is overcome. For effective problem
solving, there is need for a methodological approach
before and during the problem solving.
Before
solving the problem
i.
Make sure that
you know what your goals are.
ii.
Develop a system
by which you will get the intended results.
iii.
Monitor the
quality and quantity of your system
iv.
Make sure that
you complete the problem properly and on time.
v.
Review the
objectives you set and the methods used.
During the
problem solving
i.
Formulate the
problem
ii.
Interpret the
problem
iii.
Construct a
course of action
iv.
Make appropriate
decisions
v.
Implement the
actions/decisions
vi.
Evaluate your
work.
Revision questions on study skills
1.
What factors
would you bear in mind while making a study time-table?
2.
Discuss four
characteristics of an efficient study group
3.
What problems can
be encountered during a group discussion?
4.
What points do
you need to bear in mind while buying books?
LISTENING SKILLS
Definitions
There are many definitions of
listening. The following are some examples.
1.
Listening is the
active process of receiving aural
stimuli (De Vito, 1987:26)
2.
Listening is a
voluntary process that goes beyond simply reacting
to sounds and includes understanding,
analysing, evaluating, and responding.
3.
Listening is an active, deliberate, selective process
by which a message is received,
critically interpreted, and acted upon by a purposeful listener.
Difference
between Listening and Hearing
Unlike listening, hearing is a passive process; automatic process, it
is simply the act of perceiving sounds.
Listening is more than just part of spoken
communication. It involves both verbal and non-verbal messages. Response to the
presentation is influenced by a variety of factors such as the presenter's
physical mannerisms (gestures, movement or lack of it, direct gaze or lack of
it etc.) dress, cultural background; our own expectations; the venue etc.
Listening is very vital to every human interaction, both in academic and social
settings. Effective listening takes time and effort; it is at times very
difficult. Good listening in professions, for example, leads to provision of
better services. Poor listening, on the other hand can be disastrous and
costly. Consider the following statement:
"Poor listening occurs every day and results in
the loss of jobs, profit, relationships, or even life… skillful listening will
improve your chances for personal and professional success" (O'Hair,
Friedrich, and Shaver, 1998:105).
Failing to listen effectively can
lead to embarrassing moments.
|
.
As
the definitions above show, listening is voluntary; it is something one
consciously chooses to do. Active listening is hard work because it requires
concentration on what the lecturer or speaker is saying. It calls for
discipline and practice. For you to listen effectively, you must consciously
deal with anything that might interfere with your understanding. This could
be external or internal.
|
Level
of Listening
We
listen with varying levels of concentration depending on among others factors
the purpose of listening, your physical and psychological state, your
background knowledge, and the content
of the speech or lecture. Listening is therefore, said to be more than just a single, simple
activity.
Level of Listening
________________________________________________________________________ Level
of Listening Definition
________________________________________________________________________
Reception Hearing without attending
to sounds or noises around
you. This could happen in the classroom or lecture
if you tune the speaker out.
________________________________________________________________________
Attention Listening passively with no effort to relate to or understand what is said. Many people, for example, love listening to certain singers, although they may not understand the words.
Attention Listening passively with no effort to relate to or understand what is said. Many people, for example, love listening to certain singers, although they may not understand the words.
________________________________________________________________________ Integration Relating
new information to old learning. E.g. learning a method of
solving a mathematical problem.
________________________________________________________________________
Interpretations Synthesizing information or
bringing it together and putting it into your own
words. It also involves figuring out how the information affects what you do as an employee, student,
individual, etc ________________________________________________________________________
Implication Drawing conclusions from the information
________________________________________________________________________
Application Applying information to personal experiences e.g.
listening to a lecture on
how to write and present a speech and using the information
the next time you have a speaking assignment.
________________________________________________________________________
Evaluation Judging information in terms of accuracy and
relevance to our circumstances.
Adapted
from: Theodore O. Knight. Study Strategies for Careers. Homewood,
11: Irwin, 1993:6.
NOTE
|
In one listening event you may
engage in more than one level of listening
|
Barriers to Effective Listening
You may find that your listening is
hampered by both internal and external factors. The following are some examples of barriers to effective listening and
their possible solutions.
a)
Unfamiliarity with the subject under discussion. One way of dealing with this
to do. prior preparation for the listening activity. In a classroom situation,
for example, you can read ahead of the lecturer so that you are familiar with
the material. This will help
you to formulate questions, which you expect the lecturer to answer during the
lecture, Communication researchers have found out that an unprepared listener
can recall. Only 50% of a 10-minute lecture if tested immediately after.
b)
Prejudices and bias. This may be based on Culture, gender, religion, ethnic
background, etc. Separate the message from the speaker and concentrate only on
the message.
c)
Day dreaming and absent-mindedness. Pay attention to the speaker and make an
effort of predicting what to said next or jot down what is being said.
d)
Poor view of the speaker due to obstruction. Position yourself at a vantage
point where you can maintain eye contact with the speaker
e)
Poor sitting position or general discomfort. Assume an upright sitting position
that can enable you to turn freely and even take notes
In
conclusions, make every effort to fight against all opportunities to lose
concentration. Deliberately postpone any personal business until after the
lecture or presentation.
NOTE-TAKING
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you
should be able to:
1.
Use
abbreviations, symbols, and acronyms
2.
Make notes that
show a relative importance of ideas
3.
Use mind maps and
other diagrammatic representations of ideas.
One of the reasons why we listen is to acquire information.
Research has shown that we can lose up to 80% of the content, which can be
forgotten within two weeks if no effort is made to record or to remember the
material. This stresses the importance of note-taking during a listening
session.
Remember however, not to make a copy
of the speaker's every word.
Note taking helps you to remember both what you heard
and what you understood. It is learning about the subject and not simply
recording all that the speaker says. By taking notes you are able to pay closer
attention to and become more familiar with the new information.
READING SKILLS
Definition
A simple (and provisional) definition of reading is
that it is a process whereby one looks at and understands what has been
written. This definition of reading does not mean that one needs to understand
everything in a text. Understanding is not an "all or nothing"
process and from that it follows that reading is not "all or nothing"
process either. Reading involves many sub skills for example-literal comprehension,
inferential comprehension, interpretation, evaluation and critical
appreciation. The process of reading has the following characteristics.
1.
It is both a
physical and mental activity.
2.
It requires
attention and thought.
3.
It involves the
participation of the reader emotionally and intellectually.
4.
It involves
interpretation of the written (printed) symbols.
Different readers may interpret the same text
differently. This implies that readers put meaning into what they read. The
meaning that a reader may put on a piece of writing is determined by several
factors. For example, the reader's background, knowledge or experience,
emotional appeal of the subject or the reader's intellectual ability.
Reading is a very versatile activity because it can
take place almost anywhere: in a classroom, library, house, vehicle, train etc.
Purposes for
reading
a)
Reading for
pleasure/entertainment
b)
Acquiring
knowledge and information: to be informed about the world you live in.
c)
Reading for
academic purpose
Materials that can be read for academic
information are: textbooks, reference books, general and specialist journals,
magazines and special sections of newspapers.
d)
Reading for
instructions or directions: food and clothing labels, instructions on drugs,
operational manuals on machines etc.
Types of
Reading
There are several types/ways/techniques of reading.
They are previewing, skimming, scanning, word for word reading, light reading,
intensive/study/critical reading and extensive reading.
a) Previewing
It involves looking over a text to determine its
relevance and worth for a specific reading purpose. It helps the reader to
predict in a very short time, what a reading text is all about and to determine
its degree of relevance. You then can decide whether to read the book or not, or
whether to read a part or parts of it and which part.
Previewing a text is done by looking at the following:
i) Front
matter: title, forward/preface or introduction, table of contents.
ii)
Back matter:
blurbs, index, glossary, bibliography.
iii)
The book itself:
Headings, subheadings, organizations, language, content, diagrams.
b) Skimming
Used when a reader wants to get the main idea or gist
of a text within a very short time. When skimming, you need to read the topic
sentences only. The topic sentence is usually the first in a paragraph and
expresses the main idea. But sometimes a writer may choose to make the second
sentence of a paragraph the topic sentence. On rare occasions, a writer may
make the last sentence of the paragraph the topic sentence. This is determined
by the writing style that a writer may adapt to convey certain information. You
can skim through a long text or even a book in just a few minutes and get the
gist of the text.
c) Scanning
It involves searching for particular items of
information. You are interested in these items only and not everything in the
text.
d) Word by word reading;
This reading technique is used when one is learning
how to read for the first time. You might use this technique if you decide to
learn a new language. Word for word reading means trying to understand fully
one word or phrase at a time. It is a slow reading technique. Scientists and
mathematicians use it when they are studying processes and formulae.
e) Light reading
This is the way most people read most of the time.
There is neither an attempt to digest the material that is read nor is there
any attempt to assess it critically. This type of reading tends to be fast and
superficial. It is the type of reading most people apply when reading
newspapers and novels. This kind of reading is not recommended for study
purposes but you can use the technique when reading for leisure.
f) Intensive reading
Intensive reading entails content study of what is
read in some detail and study of language in which the material is written.
Intensive reading calls for a deep and thorough understanding of what is
written. The concern is with detailed comprehension of short texts-typically
not more than five hundred words in length. Intensive reading implies
approaching a text under the guidance of a task (or a teacher) which forces the
student to use analytical, critical and evaluative skills. It is the type of
reading a university student engages in when studying.
To be an efficient intensive reader, you need to get
rid of some bad reading habits:
i) Trying
to understand every word that you read by consulting the dictionary from time to time. Slows down reading and interferes with concentration.
ii)
Vocalization or
moving lips as you read. This slows down reading to a speaking pace and is
therefore inefficient.
iii)
Retrogression.
This means reading forwards and backwards. It hinders comprehension unless you
are doing word by word reading.
iv)
Pointing - using
a finger, pencil or pen over what is being read or nodding the head. This is
not only slow but also clumsy
g) Extensive Reading
Extensive reading might be said to emphasize the
process whereby a student comes to understand a book without fully grasping
every point of it, or even trying to. Strategies such as skimming and scanning
are important here, but there are also others such as recognising the
contribution of 'plot' or 'argument' to understanding a text. Extensive reading
usually involves long texts or books with many pages - or just wide reading.
The objectives of extensive reading are: to promote enjoyment of reading, to
provide various experiences, and to provide wide exposure to written English in
use.
TEXT
READABILITY
This is the extent to which it is possible to read a
text and comprehend its content. It refers to the relative simplicity or
difficulty in understanding, interpreting, evaluating or applying the
information in a text.
Factors
determining text readability
a) The language level.
This includes new words and other technical or
scientific terms which one is not familiar with It may also refer to sentence
structures, stylistic devices, register, idiomatic expressions used etc.
b) Content
This refers to the subject matter. It could be
elementary or advanced depending on the level of education of the reader.
c) Layout
This is the arrangement or structure of the text in
terms of chapters, units, paragraphs and even sentences. The way a text is
structured makes it possible to follow the trend of though of the writer.
d) Print size
The size of the print, the front size are also
important factors. Very small print is uncomfortable and tiring to read.
How
to comprehend a difficult text
a) Vocabulary
One can understand new words, difficult terms, phrases
or expressions without using a dictionary. This can be done by: -looking at the
context clues, getting synonyms, using predictions and using inference
b) Predictions
This is when one reads to confirm expectations. This
technique is highly motivating and gives one a purpose for reading.
c) Inference/implications (“reading between the lines”)
This is 'reading' beyond what you can see in print, on
pages. It calls for reasoning, reaching an opinion, making conclusions. It is
important when answering questions on meanings of words, phrases as used in the
passage and also identification of the connotations of different sentences.
d) The SQ3R reading method
This is a special skill useful in reading. The
abbreviation SQ3R stands for the steps
that one reader follows while using this method of reading. These are.
i)
Survey
-Glance over the titles or chapter headings to
establish the subject of the text.
-Read the whole of the first paragraph; in case of a
passage
-Read the first sentence in each subsequent paragraph
-Read the whole of the last paragraph
-In case of a book, read chapter summaries or
conclusions.
ii)
Question
-Turn the first heading into a question. This will
arouse your curiosity and thereby increase your comprehension.
-The question will also make important points stand
out, at the same time, explanatory details will be recognised.
-In case of passages or even some books, you could
also look at the questions in the text.
iii)
Read
-Read the text to establish the subject matter, the
writer’s approach and get the general gist. Try to obtain quick answers for the
questions you raised in (ii) above.
iv)
Revise
At this stage, you get into active reading and search
for information and answers to specific questions. You ought to make notes. You
should be guided by the topic sentences and the supporting evidence as well as
the discourse markers (idea connectors). They will show you the trend of argument
of the author.
v)
Recite
-Having read and revised, now look away from the text
and try to recall and recite the answers to the questions raised or thought
about.
-Use your own words and cite some examples
-If you can recite, you know what is in the book; if
you can't glance over the section again.
-An excellent way to recite from memory is to write
down brief notes or phrases in outline form, on a piece of paper.
NB: stages 3 and 4 should enable you to make good notes.
Summary
Writing
All cases of summary writing involve identifying the
main ideas, facts or arguments found in a given text. The text may be your own
or someone else's. E.g. at the end of a long essay, you may want to summarise
your main points as you conclude your discussion of a given issue.
-For you to summarise a text, it is important to
understand the text thoroughly. A text may deal with various issues. Are you
interested in all of them? How detailed is your summary to be? Perhaps you only
need to capture the gist of the writer's claim or argument. Once your purpose
is clear, you take the necessary notes.
-Check your notes against the information provided in
the text until you are satisfied that you have all the information you require,
and nothing that you do not need for the purpose of your summary.
-Then, put the text away and, using your
own words, write the summary in essay form.
-Unless you have a word limit for the summary, in
which case you need to count your words in order to ensure that you are within
the limit, now you only need to look at your essay critically to check such
things as language use (choice of words and sentence construction), punctuation
and the logical flow of ideas.
NON-LINEAR TEXTS
Non-linear
texts include charts, diagrams, graphs, tables, figures etc. In academic
writing, data is frequently presented by means of non-linear texts. In writing
essays or term papers, the use of graphs and charts can make your work more
attractive, interesting and informative.
i)
Tables
This is one
of the most straight ways of presenting information, although not necessarily the easiest to interpret. The data can be used
to make certain conclusions, comparisons and
summaries.
ii) Bar graphs
This is the simplest kind of graph to interpret. It is
usually very visual with various colours or shading to give a quick overall
picture to the reader. They are mainly suitable when comparing and contrasting
two or more groups. The bar graphs should be drawn proportionally and should be
accurate.
-There can be more than one set of figures represented
in one bar graph. In this case, the key should indicate proper colours used to
distinguish sets of information.
iii)Histograms
The term histogram is often incorrectly interchanged
with bar graph, but there is some difference. Histograms are often used to show
frequency of occurrence, or to show how common something is over a given range.
(e.g. time). They are commonly used in the representation of annual rainfall or
temperature for a country or town. Here, the divisions will be conveniently twelve
for the months and will enable the reader to make instant comparisons, even
before studying actual numbers on the axes.
iv) Pie charts
Mainly suitable when showing the difference among
various types of things or groups. The various measures are given either in
degrees or percentages.
v)
Line graphs
These are suitable when the information given (or
being represented) doesn't require comparison and contrast. The information
only shows how particular figures are represented (particularly if there's fluctuation).
However, comparison and contrasts are possible when there is more than one line
graph in one representation. These are called combination graphs and involve the superimposition of one on
another using the same axis or axes. They save space and also enable the reader
to immediately compare one set of figures with another.
vi) Pyramids
These are very useful when comparing and contrasting
two sets of figures; for example, the male and the female at a given time.
-The pyramid has two sets of figures being compared or
contrasted, put in the same diagram e.g. one on the left, the other on the
right.
Interpretation of non-linear texts:
The following points are important in the
analysis/interpretation of non-linear texts.
i) the
key
ii)
the scale used
iii)
the proper
representation of the texts e.g. the X and Y axes for graphs.
iv)
Labeling the
texts accurately and correctly
v)
Critical
reading/interpretation ie. Using inference and implication and making comments
on what you can interpret from texts.
vi)
A summary of important
information and comments covering the whole text.
EXAMINATION SKILLS
A INTRODUCTION
Examinations are one way
of effectively measuring how well you have studied a certain subject or course.
Success or failure in your work is determined almost entirely by your
ability to perform well in examinations. A
little anxiety is good because it makes you read but a lot of anxiety is bad since it can
incapacitate you. Examinations have some benefits for students:
-They are forced to
revise previous work
-They cover larger units
than they normally do.
-They take wider views
and perceive the relationships of the parts of the whole.
B REVISING FOR AN EXAM
§ Final success in your examination depends on laying a
foundation at the outset. Make it a habit to do all the assignments, to take
good notes and to review your work consistently. The more familiar you are with
the course content, the easier it is to revise for tests and examinations.
§ Be aware of what is
expected of you by the examiner. You will
need to get the course outlines of your courses. It is important that you cover
100% of the content. Do not go into an examination room with gaps in your
knowledge or understanding.
§ Look for past examination papers of the past three to
four years to see what grounds are covered and also to find out the following:
number of papers that you are expected to sit for, the number of questions you
are expected to answer, how long the paper will be, the choice of questions to
be answered. For example, if they are equally weighted or not.
§ Make revision aids from your notes for quick reading.
§ Review lecture notes, study notes and main ideas
emphasized by lecturers.
§ Make a
revision time table bearing in mind the total number of exams, subject
length and difficulty, and your own strengths and weaknesses.
§ For each subject, make a list of specific topics to be revised, e.g.
note-taking, examination skills etc.
§ Decide on the order of importance of the topics and
allocate time appropriately.
§ Limit each study
session to two hours or less; allow for
breaks within a revision session and at the end of each session, before
embarking on the next topic. During the break, reflect on what you have been
revising.
§ Allow for repeats of difficult topics.
§ Plan to revise different topics in a day for variety.
C. INTERPRETING EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
The Skill of interpreting and
answering examinations questions is of extreme importance to a student. One's knowledge, skill or
attitude in a particular subject or course is usually determined by the score or grade one obtains in an
examination. It is therefore necessary that every student is able to.
1.
Read and interpret
examination questions more efficiently by concentrating key terms.
2.
Choose the right
questions
3.
Organise your answer
according to the type of question
4.
Use the time
available economically
Various studies have identified the main factors that make an exam difficult
for the particular group doing an exam. These factors can be summarised as
follows.
1.
Subject or concept difficulty
2.
Process difficulty,
where a particular operation or sequence of operations demands manipulation of
data at a high level and the recall of specific learned items.
3.
Question or stimulus difficulty, where the guidance given to candidates in directing
their attention to a particular response, or the support given in terms of
additional information or data, is either minimal or non-specific.
The third factor can be isolated as the most common,
with relevance to university students. The problem usually arises from the
candidates' failure to interpret DIRECTION WORDS. One reason why it is very difficult to interpret
direction words is thuat many of then are used interchangeably, for example,
the word write may mean state, outline, name, list, construct or even trace.
The following are common direction words and their
meanings in examination contexts.
1.
Describe
Recount, sketch, or relate something in sequence or
story form. Give a good word picture of the concept.
2.
Definition
Give a clear, concise meaning for a term. It generally
consists of identifying a class to which a term belongs and how it differs from
other things in that class..
3.
Illustrate
Show by means of a picture, diagram or some other
graphic aid. It may also mean to bring forth specific examples or instances
which illustrate a law, rule or principal
4.
Classify/categorise
Place persons or things together in a group because
they are alike or similar. In science there is an order in which all groups
follow when it comes to classifying or categorizing: phylum or division, class,
order, family, genus, species and variety.
5.
Compare
To bring both points of similarity and differences,
but generally with the greater emphasis on similarities.
6.
Contrast
To particularly stress differences
7.
Cause and Effect
The relationship described in this kind of writing
refers to the cause, reason or purpose of an event, situation, action, idea or
problem and their effect, consequence, result or outcome, e.g. heat CAUSES iron
to expand; the prices rose as a RESULT of increased demand.
8.
Account
§ To give an account of means to describe. Brief account
indicates, that not too much detail is required.
§ To account for means give reason(s) for.
9.
Apply (to)
This means to put something to use; show how something
can be used in a particular situation. The 'something' that is to be applied
may be a theory, or certain findings, data results of research, etc.
10.
Comment (on)
Give your views on something; say what you think about
something. This word is often used with a quotation or statement: you are
expected to give your own reaction to it (views on it). Do you agree with the
statement or not? What are your reasons?
11.
Consider
Describe and give your thoughts on.
12.
Discuss
It means to examine and talk about an issue from all
sides. Every point raised should be immediately followed with an appropriate
and clear exemplification or demonstration. You may make your on conclusions
based the argument advanced
13.
Evaluate
Decide the worth of something; judge; decide how good,
bad, worthwhile, relevant, important, etc. something is. It is advisable to
back up this type of answer with evidence (facts, figures, instances, etc)
rather than simply with appeals to authority.
14.
Explain
(ex = out; plain = open space): To bring out into the
open, make clear, analyse, and clarify. It is closely related to discussion but
implies more of an emphasis on cause-effect relationships or step-by-step
sequences
15.
Identify
Put a name to or list something.
16.
Indicate:
Point out, does not usually giving very much detail.
17.
List/enumerate/state
Make a list of a number of things. Usually involves
remembering or finding out a number of things and putting them down one after
the other, but it is often better if you make your list according to same kind
of system.
18.
Plan
Think out how something is to be done, make or
organised etc. You usually have to show that you can think your way into a
problem, foresee difficulties and think of practical solutions.
19.
Report (on)
Describe what one has seen or done. Usually refers to
something which has been experienced directly (personally).
20.
Review
Write a report on something. Sometimes it involves
both stating what facts are and also saying what your own opinions are.
21.
Specify
Give details of something. Usually involves being
specific, ie. Precise, accurate.
22.
Work out
Find a solution to a problem etc.
D PREPARING FOR AN EXAMINATION
a)
One week before
the exam
Find out about the examination
1.
When and where will be examination be
held?
2.
What time does it start and how
long does it take?
3.
What areas will it cover?
4.
What forms will the question take?
Objective? Short answer? Essays? Problem solving? Practicals? Or combination?
5.
How many questions should be
attempted?
6.
Are some
questions compulsory?
b)
The day before
the exam
1.
Check again the
time and place of examination?
2.
Check again your
examination number/registration number
3.
Make sure that
you have all the materials you need for the examination
4.
Revise only the
top priority areas
5.
Avoid learning
new information
6.
Be relaxed and
focus your mind on the forthcoming exam.
7.
Go to bed early
and wake up in good time to avoid rushing.
c)
On arrival at the
examination venue
1.
Arrive at the
examination venue in good time.
2.
Avoid discussing
the forthcoming examinations.
3.
Once in the
examination room, arrange all the materials you will need on the table.
d)
The actual examination
When you get the question paper, apply the PWRST technique. Preview
Question, Re-read, Select, Think
1. Preview
-Read
all the general and specific instructions, and essay questions.
-Skim
passages and objective questions
2. Question
-Take
note of the sections, in the paper, number of questions per section, any compulsory questions and the marks
allocated for each question.
3. Re-read
Re-read
the specific instructions for each section/question. Pay special attention to key verbs. E.g. circle,
underline, compare, define, criticize,
write, evaluate etc.
4.
Select
Select the questions you feel most confident to
answer. Start with the easiest questions; more progressively to the more
difficult ones.
5.
Think
Think of how to make the best use of the time
allocated. Allocate time proportional to the marks available per question.
E.
ANSWERING OBJECTIVE
AND SHORTANSWER QUESTIONS
Use the SCORER mnemonic: Schedule, Clue, Omit, Read, Estimate, Review
Schedule
Allocate time for each question proportional to the
indicated marks and leave ample time at the end for revision.
Clue
Use clue words. In true/false tests, certain words
indicate give a clue e.g. always, every, all, invariably, often, seldom, never,
sometimes, usually,
Omit
Omit difficult question on first attempt. Each time
you omit a question, make minus (-) mark in the margin against the question.
Whenever you attempt a question skipped earlier, change the minus (-) to a plus
(+).
Read
Read each question carefully and do not omit any part.
There may be information at the end that changes the meaning of the entire
question.
Estimate
Estimate the answer when you are not sure. Make an
intelligent guess.
Review
Review your work to make sure that you have answered
all the questions required and followed the instructions given.
F ANSWERING ESSAY QUESTIONS
Apply the POWER mnemonic: Purpose, Organise, Write,
Evaluate, and Revise
Purpose
Establish the purpose and stick to
it. Ask yourself-what exactly am I supposed to do and how best can I achieve that purpose? This is important to avoid
irrelevancy.
Organise
Organise your answer before you
write it. Make a fairly detailed outline. Make sure that supporting ideas contribute to the main
ideas.
Write
Write the essay. Put your outline
before you and refer to it often. Each paragraph must contain only
one idea. Pay special attention to words that indicate relationships e.g. in addition, furthermore, similarly, as a
result, consequently etc. Write as legibly as possible.
Evaluate
Evaluate your work and use of time
as you proceed. Keep asking critical questions like: are there enough facts and examples to support this statement? Is
there meaning of this statement
absolutely clear? Am I operating within the time allocated?
Revise
Revise the essay. Proofread your
essays carefully to ensure that you have written what you intended to write.
G END OF THE EXAMINATION PAPER
§ Check to ensure that you have answered the correct
number of questions.
§ Ensure that all answers and pages are appropriately
labeled
§ Ensure that all the identification details appear on
your answer booklet
§ If you use loose paper, staple the answer sheets
together in the order in which you've answered the questions.
§ Check through your answers for factual details,
spelling, punctuation and grammatical errors.
§ Do not discuss the exam after doing it.
LIBRARY SKILLS
What is a
library?
A library is an information centre that facilitates
the access to and use of information in form of books, non-book material and
computerised databases. It is therefore a place where information is acquired,
systematically organized and disseminated to users.
Library
Skills
These are techniques that enable a library user to
make efficient use of the library and reap maximum benefits from it. These
skills include appreciating the role of a university library, distinguishing
the library classification system, using catalogues, doing book previews, and
writing bibliographies.
Role of a
University Library
In a university, the role of a library is to support
teaching, learning, and research by providing information resources and
services. It supports these activities by providing:
·
Relevant and up
to date information
·
Useful resources
as required by the users
·
Services in a
relaxed and good atmosphere for study
A university student is expected to independently seek
information. Information is a vital commodity in any career, and knowing how
and where to find it is important.
Types of
libraries
Libraries are categorized by the purposes they serve.
The main types are summarized as follows.
1.
Public
They serve the general public at all levels. Their aim
is to provide information over the whole range of human knowledge, promote
culture and play a positive part in encouraging an active use of leisure and recreational
time. Examples of public libraries are the Kenya National Library Services
(KNLS) and the Macmillan Library.
2.
Academic Libraries
They are found in various institutions of learning but
with similar aims. In institutions of higher learning such as the universities,
colleges and polytechnics, their main aim is to support learning, teaching and
research activities, In primary, and secondary schools they form the basis for
wide reading and references. The purposes, services, equipment and other physical
facilities of these libraries are determined by the nature of the curriculum
and size of the faculty and students.
3.
National Libraries
Their main function is to ensure that all the
publications of a particular country are acquired and preserved for posterity.
The law requires that publishers deposit copies of all materials published in
the country with the national library, National libraries also purchase books
published in other countries. Other functions of a national library include:
·
Production of a current
bibliography
·
Compile union
catalogues
·
Provision of
national reference service
·
Publishing
·
Research and
development in librarianship and information studies.
Examples of national libraries are the British
library, Library of Congress and the Kenya National Library Services. The Kenya
National Library Services serves both as a public as well as national library.
4.
Special Libraries
These are libraries that serve specific subject
fields. They include libraries in government ministries, parastatals, research
institutes, industrial and commercial concerns and international bodies.
Examples include ICIPE, ILARD, KIE, ICRAF, AMREF, UNESCO and Bankers’ Institute
Libraries.
5.
Digital Libraries
These are mainly accessed through computers with
internet facilities. They store up to date information of diversified fields.
Organized academic institutions provide such facilities but some charge a fee
for the services. At Kenyatta University, such services are provided at the
Kenyatta Virtual University (KVU) and the Cyber Café.
Exercise
Explain why libraries are important
centers for scholars.
SECTIONS
OF THE LIBRARY
1.
Lending, General circulation section
Contains books arranged on shelves in a given order.
These books may be borrowed or read within. If borrowed, the borrower must use
a borrower’s card and has to keep the book for a maximum of a specified period
of time. He may renew a book after the expiry of a given period if in case it
is not needed by another borrower. These books may also be read within the
library and must be left on reading tables for re-shelving by the library
staff. If a borrower wishes to borrow a book that has been borrowed, he/she
should get a reservation from the attendant and you will be informed as soon as
the book is returned to the library. However, if you urgently need that book,
then it can be recalled.
2.
Short Loan Section
Contains books in short supply but on high demand.
Such books can be given out for a limited period of time and must be read
within the library. Apart from books, this section also contains past papers,
publications and selected handouts.
3.
Reference Section
This section contains books on general reference or
specific references. These are read within the room and cannot be taken out of
the room. Reference books include encyclopedias, dictionaries, atlases, etc.
4.
Periodicals Section
These are of two types:
i)
Current/loose
periodical section
Contains materials that are published at periodical
intervals e.g. daily, weekly, fortnightly, monthly, and bi-annually. These
include newspapers, magazines, journals, abstracts, etc.
ii)
Bound periodical
section
Contains periodicals that have been bound for the
purpose of durability. Binding may be of two types:-Time and Series
Newspapers and magazines are usually bound on the
basis of time while journals and abstracts are usually bound by series.
5. Africana Section/National Collection
This section is normally used by lecturers and
post-graduate students. It contains rare books, theses or dissertations.
6. Children’s section
This section stocks
books that are relevant to the needs of the children.
7.
Acquisition Section
This is where new books, magazines are received, title
cards or catalogue cards are also made here.
LIBRARY
CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
The purpose of classification in the library is to
group documents on the same subject (Likeness) together in one class; and to
provide formal orderly access to the shelves. This process is accomplished by
using various classification schemes. There are several classification schemes
but in this course, only two will be briefly considered. These are:
1.
Library of
Congress Classification Scheme (LCC)
2.
Dewey Decimal
Classification (DDC)
1.
Library of Congress Classification Scheme
This classification scheme derives its name from the library of
congress from which it was devised. It is, however used in many libraries. It
consists of twenty-one major classes represented by letters of the Alphabet
(A-Z). The classes are as follows:
Library of
Congress Main Classes
A General
works
B Philosophy-Religion
C History-Auxiliary
Sciences
D History
(Except America)
E-F History
of the Americas
G Geography-
Anthropology
H Social
Sciences
J Political
Science
K Law
L Education
M Music
N Fine
Arts
P Language
and Literature
Q Science
R Medicine
S Agriculture
T Technology
U Military
Science
V Naval
Science
Z Bibliography
and Library Science
Source:
AMREF (1994:438)
Each of the main classes is further divided into
subclasses that represent disciplines (major branches) of the main class. This
is done by introducing an additional letter to the main one. The following are
the examples of the subclasses in science. Thus:
Q Science
QA Mathematics
QB Astronomy
QC Physics
QD Chemistry
QE Geology
QH Natural
history(general). Biology (general)
QK Botany
QL Zoology
QM Human
anatomy
QP Physiology
QR Microbiology
Each subclass is also subdivided further into
divisions that represent the components of the subclass. This is done by
introducing an Arabic number to the subclass. For example: QA 76 Mathematics
2.
Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC)
The Dewey Decimal Classification scheme devised by
Melvil Dewey is the oldest and the most widely used in the world. It was first
published in 1876. The scheme arranges library materials into ten classes using
Arabic numerals in the range 000-900. The main general classes are summarized
below:
000 Generalities
100 Philosophy
and related disciplines
200
Religion
300
Social Science
400 Language
500 Pure
Science
600
Technology
(Applied Sciences)
700
The Arts
800
Literature
900
General geography
and history and their auxiliaries
Source: AMREF (1994:214)
These general classes
are made more specific by dividing them into ten subclasses.
Examples of such classes for pure sciences are as follows.
500
Pure Sciences
510
Mathematics
520
Astronomy and
allied sciences
530
Physic
540
Chemistry
550
Earth Science
560
Palentology,
Paleozology
570
Life Science
580
Botanical Science
590
Zoological
Science
For practical purposes, each subclass is further
divided into smaller divisions. An example of some of the divisions in physics
(530) is as follows:
530
Physics
539
Modern Physics
539.7 Atomic
and Nuclear Physics
539.72 Particle
Physics
539.722
Ionizing
radiations
539.7222
X and gamma rays
From the above examples, it is easy to see how the
precision of each material is reached by division of the classes, subclasses
and divisions. It is such divisions that one is able to appropriately use
library to gain access to relevant information sources. Such accessibility is
also enhanced by knowing references and other resources as arranged in the
reading list. This is discussed in the next section.
THE
LIBRARY CATALOGUE
What is a
catalogue?
A catalogue is list of available materials in a
library arranged systematically. The arrangement facilitates the use of the
collections and also acts as a guide to the library's materials. The main uses
of the catalogue therefore are to:
a) Enables a person to find a document of which either
the author, the title of the subject is known
b) Show what the library has by a given author or in a
given subject
c) Show which editions of a particular work are in the
library
Forms of
catalogues
A catalogue can be presented in various forms. The
main ones are:
i) Card Catalogues
In a card catalogue, bibliographic information
(details): the author, the title, place of publication, publishers, date of
publication, pagination series, subjects and call number are recorded on a
5"X3" (i.e.12.5 cm X 7.5) catalogue cards. For nearly a century this
has been the most common form of catalogue in use, but has now been surpassed
by the computer catalogue.
ii) Book Catalogue
This is the oldest form of library catalogue. It was
the dominant form of library catalogue in the 19th century. Entries
are handwritten, typed or printed in a conventional book type format. Each page
of the book carries several entries.
iii) Microform catalogue
This type of catalogue is produced in either microfilm
or microfiche. The entries are greatly reduced and can be read with a
microfiche. The microfiche reader magnifies and displays information on the
screen.
iv) Computerized catalogue
Computerized libraries store the bibliographic records
in computers; such records are
accessible via a computer terminal within the library. Similarly, those with
online catalogue can retrieve records directly from a computer database also
via computer terminals in the library.
Types of
Catalogues
The main types of catalogues found in most libraries:
i) Author catalogue
This type of catalogue contains sources with author’s
names as heading and arranged alphabetically. The author's names may be of
persons or corporate bodies.
ii) Author/Title catalogue
|
This is a catalogue with both
title and author entries interfiled in one sequence. The entries are also
arranged alphabetically.
For Example
|
||||
|
||||
iii) Subject Catalogue
Like in any other catalogue, subject
entries are arranged alphabetically according to the subject headings. A
subject heading is the word or a group of words under which similar library materials are entered on the subject catalogue. Examples are
given below.
Single
word subject heading several
words subject headings
Botany Communication
in management
Education Environmental
Education
Environment Family Planning
Ethics Education
and church
Railroads Business
education
Economics Public Control
Entries on
cards:
|
 |
Title Card
|
Title
Publisher
L.C Call No.
Yr of
Publication
Place
of Sub.
Readings
Publication
Tech. Details
vii-introductory
pages No.
of Copies ilibrary
|
128p-no. of pages
27cm. -size of the book
|
Author
Card
Subject
Card
In
the title card and the subject card, often the title is included at the bottom.
For a periodical, we would expect to find a card that
looks like the following:
|
Title
Call No.
No.
of Volume
Year
of Publication 
Name
of Publisher
Tech,
Details
 |
Subject
Readings
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How to Locate a Book Using the Catalogue
The following are the steps you would follow to locate
a book by its author, title and subject using a catalogue.
1. Locating a book by its author
The following are the main steps
i) Consider the name of the author depending on the
type of the author. This may be a personal or corporate author. If the author
is personal, the surname comes first, followed by the forenames. For example,
Ogeta, David; Kuuya, Masote; Munasinghe, Mohan; Mwangi, Lucy Wambui.
In the case of corporate author, names of institutions
and organizations are entered in a direct order. Examples are: Government
ministries; African Development Bank; Kenya Ministry of Education and Human
Resource Development.
ii) Then find the author in the appropriate drawer the
Author or Author/Title catalogue
iii) After you have found the author card, copy the
call number of the book
iv) Locate the book on the shelves using the call
number.
2
Locating a book
by its title
The following are the steps:
i)
Use the first
word of title to find title card in the Title or Author/Title catalogue. The
article: "a", "an" and "the" are ignored when
they occur before the title. For example: An introduction biology (ignore
"the"); A dictionary of computers ("ignore A") and the
Death of God (ignore "the").
ii)
Find the title of
the card in the appropriate drawer of the title catalogue or Author/Title.
iii)
After you have
found the title card, copy down the call number of the book.
iv)
By using the call
number, proceed to the appropriate bay and locate the book on the shelves using
the call number.
3.
Locating a book
by its subject
The following are the main steps:
i)
Identifying key
words form a given-topic. For example, if you are working on information on
higher education in Kenya, you locate the book on the shelves using the call
number.
-Education, higher
-Education, Kenya.
ii)
Locate possible
subject headings in the drawer in the subject catalogue
iii)
Consider
synonymous terms of the subject headings
iv)
Check the
relevant records to your topic
v)
Write down
bibliographic details of each source identified (i.e. author, title, and the
call number, proceed to the relevant bay and located the book on the shelves
using the call number.
To assist users in formulating subject headings, some
libraries keep standardized lists of subject headings (Find out this from your
library) A list of subject headings consist of terms that are using the call
number.
In order for you to locate books on the shelves
easily, it is significant to know how books are arranged on the shelves. This
is enhanced by descriptions in the next section.
ARRANGEMENT
OF LIBRARY MATERIALS
Library materials are physically
arranged according to a particular classification scheme by using call numbers. The arrangement is
from left to right and top to bottom of each section
of the shelf. Materials with the same class number are further sub-arranged by authors' surnames in alphabetical order. The call number is therefore used for the arrangement
and retrieval of library materials
on and out of the shelves.
Such arrangement is shown in the
figure below:
Classified
sequence
From the above description, it is easy to see the
arrangement in the sequence, which has been made easier by use of call number.
A call number is a symbol combining the class number and an author mark. The
author mark is usually the initial letter of the author's surname, proceeded by
a dot and then followed by one or two numerals.
For
Example
QA
76
is a call number.
.M8
For full identification of the book, the title may be
given. Hence.
QA
76
Computers and
Informatics in developing Countries
.M8
Procedure
of Locating a Book in the Library
i)
Identify the
correct catalogue (computer subject, author, subject)
ii)
Access and write
down the call number of the material (Class/branch)
iii)
Using the
class/branch number, identify the correct shelf e.g. PE for Linguistics.
iv)
Searches for the
material on the shelves using the book/author number.
v)
If the material
is found on the shelf borrow it.
vi)
However, if the
material is not available on the shelves yet it is listed as being stocked in
the library, then the reader can do the following:
a)
Check along the
shelves - may be it is misplaced
b)
Check on the
trolley/reading tables
c)
Check on the
short loan section
BOOK
PREVIEW
-Suppose you have a paper to write.
Then you go to the library and find that the subject catalogue has lots of titles on the subject or year paper -What do
you do?
-From experience you are aware that
there are good and bad publications./
-Certainly you would like to base
your paper on good i.e. reliable sources.
-The question is How are you going
to tell just which of these many materials/titles are likely to help you produce a good paper?
-The answer to this question is
"You have to evaluate the library materials/sources i.e. you have to preview materials/sources as
based on the following.
(i)
Front matter
a)
Comments of the
editor (if available)
b)
Statements of
such things as aim, scope and methodology which are found in the
preface/forward.
c)
Relevance and
comprehensiveness or the work as shown by its list of Table of contents
d)
Others are: the
title of the book, publication details (publisher, year etc) and author.
ii) Back
matter
a)
Appendix
Refers to that part which contains information that is
relevant to a topic but does not appear in the actual text. E.g. questionnaire,
large maps/diagrams, questions and answers etc.
b)
Index of subjects
-Refers to that part which shows the place with
sub-titles used in a textbook along with the pages on which they appear.
c)
Bibliography
-Refers to a list of references/reading materials that
an author/writer used in writing up his/her work.
-Theses references are listed alphabetically as
follows.
-First, the authors, surname, which is followed by the
initials of the author
-The year of publication follows.
-the title of the book follows (Should be underlined
or written in italics.)
-the publisher/publishing firm
-the place where the book was published.
NB: an example, Hyde, L. (1983). The Gift:
Imagination and erotic Life of Property. New York; Vintage Books.
d) Glossary
-refers to a
list of explanations of technical words and scientific terms that one
has used in his book.
e) The blurb
-Refers to
the back page that has information on the author, what the book is
about and other people's comments on the worth of the book.
iii) The
book itself
-Since in previewing a book you want
to know if the book is relevant to you, then your
first impressions of the book’s
quality (logic, depth, style, visual aids etc ) are important
-Visual aids (tables, pictures,
diagrams, maps etc) illustrate and enhance the materials
hence leading to clear understanding of the book.
-Generally the lay out of the text
and its organisation: Titles, sub-titles, chronology of information, exhaustiveness.
CITATION AND
REFERENCING TECHNIQUES.
In developing academic argumentation in your essay;
you will need to use short form of references, referred to as in-text citation. These can be either
in form of paraphrasing or foot notes. The following are such example.
a) In-text citation
This
is mainly used to support your ideas
i)
A study by Wekesa
(1995:86) shows that ---
ii)
Wekesa (1995:1)
Identifies---
iii)
Recent study
(Thuo, 1985) indicates that---
After the essay is completed, a bibliography is
compiled using the sources cited.
b)
Footnote
These are often explanations notes given either at the
bottom of the page on which they appear or listed at the end of the chapter as endnotes. They indicate the authority
cited or some technical terms that need explanation. They are useful in
authenticating the writer's statements, and give guidance for further reading.
They also indicate what was directly quoted by the writer in amplifying some
points in the discussion of the centre theme.
Abbreviation
for footnotes.
(i)
Ibid (Latin Ibidem) means in the same place e.g. if you cited Mugenda and Mugenda (1999)
of p.61 with information relating to intervening variables, and them cite the
same source on P.117, the citation can be shortened as ibid P.117, instead of writing the full reference Mugenda, O.M. and
Mugenda Acts Press, 1999.
(ii)
Op.cit. This
means the work cited. It is used when the same work is cited but other
references come between them e.g. Mudenga and Mugenda Op.cit P.168.
(iii)
Loc Cil:
This is used to mean "same place" cited and follows a citation that
is exactly the same as the one before and appearing on the same page.
In
citing a reference, the following parts should be included; author, title of
the book (source) or article, city of publication, the publishers and the date
of publication. The organization of these parts and the publications involved
depend on the type of the style of referencing techniques being used.