1.What
is Human Resource?
·
The resource that resides in the knowledge,
skills, and motivation
of people. Human resource is the least mobile of the
four factors of production,
and (under right conditions)
it improves with age
and experience,
which no other resource can do. It is therefore regarded as the scarcest and
most crucial productive resource that creates the
largest and longest lasting advantage
for an organization.
·
“Human Resources is an umbrella term for a
collection of functions that assist an organization deliver value through its
employees, contractors and agency staff”. However Human Resources is viewed and defined as a lifecycle
The approach I’ve taken in explaining what HR does, is to follow an employee
through being attracted to a role/organization, day one on the job, their
day to day interactions with HR, and then finally leaving the
organization.
·
Human resources is the set of individuals
who make up the workforce of an organization,
business
sector, or economy.
"Human capital" is sometimes used synonymously
with human resources, although human capital typically refers to a more narrow
view (i.e., the knowledge the individuals embody and economic growth).
Likewise, other terms sometimes used include "manpower",
"talent", "labour", or simply "people”. Related
function is Staffing which is a process of hiring, positioning and
overseeing employees in an organization.
HR
entails (What HR does)?
a)Attracting new employeesAs a potential employee, we start off by looking for an organization that not only meets our financial needs, but also our intellectual and social needs, and aligns with our values. Organisations are aware of this, and indeed they want to find employees who share or align with their own organisational values etc. The role that HR has in this space is the delivery of something called an Employee Value Proposition (EVP). The EVP sets out what the organisation is happy to make available to you, it comprises both the remuneration (salary, wages) that you will receive, and the benefits, that you can access as an employee.
In creating/supplementing the EVP, the HR function will come up with a list of benefits, which align with the wider values of the organisation. They then whittle those down to ones that are both affordable and would be seen as attractive to the largest proportion of the workforce the organisation wants to attract. Some examples of aspects of these EVP benefits that I’ve encountered include funds for training that each employee can apply for, maternity or paternity leave over and above the legislative minimum, availability of funding for conference attendance, discounts on the products of the employer, security guard escorts to your car or train station after hours.
The EVP is a very powerful tool that HR holds to attract employees. One organisation I worked with provided a security guard escorts to your car or train station after hours, I am never going to use this benefit – I typically work during daylight hours. However, I am interested in working for organisations which care about the safety of their employees. When this came up in conversation with this employer, it gave me insight into their culture, which resonated with my own values and wants from an employer.
So HR has a tool through the EVP to attract applicants, HR also has duties within the recruitment and selection space. The recruitment function will either sit within the HR team, or HR will manage the relationship between the organisation and the external recruitment firm it has engaged. Often it’s a combination of both, some easy to fill roles will be recruited by HR, while specialist or very senior roles will be handled by an external recruitment firm. When HR is doing the recruiting they will support the hiring manager in composing the job advertisement, and also assist in determining which channels they will use to advertise the role (local or national newspaper, job sites, social media, specialist journals etc). The applications received typically go through to the hiring manager to vet, sometimes HR will also assist on this aspect if they’re asked to. Once at the selection phase it really depends on the organisation the role that HR has to play. Sometimes HR will offer interview training for managers, sometimes someone from HR will sit in on the interview, other times it can be left completely with the hiring manager. Once the hiring decision is made, HR will typically have a part to play on the administration side, they’ll send out the contract, they’ll receive the signed contract back, and have the new employee setup in the payroll system. The issuing of security cards and/or IT access isn’t done within HR, however by HR entering the details of the new employee into the payroll system, it triggers these other aspects to happen.
Sometimes potential employees will ask for a higher salary. The role that HR plays in this is typically about providing guidance to the hiring manager. HR might provide a salary range that the manager can offer, or they might ask the manager to justify why they want to offer this candidate a higher amount. In these cases HR and the hiring manager will have a conversation about the best way forward, and one that takes internal equity and performance expectations into account.
b)Day one for the new employee
the orientation of new employees into an organization is created and run by your Human Resources team. They will take their cues from senior management (the Board and CEO), and will assemble a presentation or plan which is designed to get new employees up to speed as quickly as possible. Often times the orientation will place more focus on the culture and expectations of your employer, and much less on the technical side of your employment. For example it might include a section on the history of the organisation, an executive may deliver a 15 minute presentation on the organisation or their section in the organisation, or it may include a visit to one of the coal face areas of the business (a plant, retail store, depot, or call centre etc).
c)The day to day life of an employee
The vast majority of employees have very little if any face to face interaction with HR, potentially only seeing an HR Practitioner during a presentation or other such group event. What employees will do however is interact with the policies and procedures that HR have ownership over. If you’re ever applied for any type of leave, or some training, filled out a timesheet, quit a job, filled out an engagement survey, received a pay increase, or been fired, then you’re interacted with an policy or procedure that HR owns and maintains. Where HR Practitioners do spend a lot of face to face time with employees and their managers is around managing poor performance and change management. In the case of a poor performing employee, HR will discuss the issues with the manager and come up with a plan, they’ll often be in the meetings with the poor performing employee, and will monitor the progress of the employee until they either perform well or are exited from the organisation. The other area where HR Practitioners spend quite a bit of face to face time is around change, this might be restructuring an area, outsourcing a function, redundancy situations. Change is often upsetting, so the role of HR is to address questions and ensure that as little disruption as possible is experienced by the business and the employees.
d) Leaving the organization
In most cases when an employee leaves the organization, the only interaction they will have with HR is answer an exit survey. On the very rare occasion, HR might be engaged by the manager of the exiting employee to come up with a counter offer to retain the employee. I’ve been on the sidelines of a couple of counter offer situations through my roles in remuneration. They are rare in part because most of us are fairly easy to replace, and secondly they don’t often work. They can certainly retain the employee for a small period of time, but from my observations and discussions with colleagues, that same employee will usually leave within a few months.
Human
resources development
Human resources play an important part of
developing and making a company or organization at the beginning or making a
success at the end, due to the labour provided by employees. Human resource
developing is to build a better understanding on how to have a better
employment relations or relationship in
the workforce, which in turn is human resources. Also, to bring
out the best work ethic of the
employees and therefore making a move to a better working environment. What Is Human Resources Development?
Human resources development (HRD) refers to the vast field of
training and development provided by organizations to increase the knowledge,
skills, education, and abilities of their employees. In many organizations, the
human resources development process begins upon the hiring of a new employee
and continues throughout that employee's tenure with the organization. Many employees come into an organization with only a basic level of skills and experience and must receive training in order to do their jobs effectively. Others may already have the necessary skills to do the job, but don't have knowledge related to that particular organization. HR development is designed to give employees the information they need to adapt to that organization's culture and to do their jobs effectively.
Question: What Is Human Resource Development (HRD)?
Answer:
Human Resource Development (HRD) is the frameworks for helping employees develop their personal and organizational skills, knowledge, and abilities. Human Resource Development includes such opportunities as employee training, employee career development, performance management and development, coaching, mentoring, succession planning, key employee identification, tuition assistance, and organization development.
The focus of all aspects of Human Resource Development is on developing the most superior workforce so that the organization and individual employees can accomplish their work goals in service to customers.
Organizations have many opportunities for human resources or employee development, both within and outside of the workplace. Human Resource Development can be formal such as in classroom training, a college course, or an organizational planned change effort.
Human Resource Development can be informal as in employee coaching by a manager. Healthy organizations believe in Human Resource Development and cover all of these bases.
What Is the Purpose of HRD?
Human resources development can be viewed, in some ways, in the same manner
that a coach views his athletic team. While a coach may recruit players who
already have some skill and ability, the point of continued practice is to
strengthen those skills and abilities and make even better athletes.
HR development has the same goal: to make better employees. The
purpose of HR development is to provide the 'coaching' needed to strengthen and grow the knowledge, skills, and abilities that an employee already has. The goal of development
and training is to make employees even better at what they do.
Human
resource is needed to be developed as per the
change in external environment of the organization, hence, HRD helps to adapt
such changes through the development of existing human
resource in terms of skill and knowledge.
The importance or significance of
HRD can be explained as follows:
1.
HRD Develops Competent HR
HRD
develops the skills and knowledge of individual; hence, it helps to provide
competent and efficient HR as per the job requirement. To develop employment's
skill and competencies, different training and development programs are
launched.
2.
HRD Creates Opportunity for Career Development
HRD
helps to grasp the career development opportunities
through development of human skills and knowledge. Career development consists
of personal development efforts through a proper match between training and development opportunities with
employee's need.
3.
Employ Commitment
Trained
and efficient employees are committed towards their jobs which is possible
through HRD. If employees are provided with proper training and development
opportunities, they will feel committed to the work and the organization.
4.
Job Satisfaction
When
people in the organization are well oriented and developed, they show higher
degree of commitment in actual work place. This inspires them for better
performance, which ultimately leads to job satisfaction.
5.
Change Management
HRD
facilitates planning, and management of change in an organization. It also
manages conflicts through improved labor management relation. It develops
organizational health, culture and environment which lead to change management.
6.
Opportunities For Training And Development
Trainings
and development programs are tools of HRD. They provide opportunity for
employee's development by matching training needs with organizational
requirement. Moreover, HRD facilitates integrated growth of employees through
training and development activities.
7.
Performance Improvement
HRD
develops necessary skills and abilities required to perform
organizational activities. As a result of which, employees can contribute for
better performance in an organization. This leads to greater organizational
effectiveness.
Types of HRD
Human resources development usually begins as soon as an employee is hired
and continues throughout that employee's tenure with the organization. HRD
comes in different forms, including on-the-job training or job shadowing,
textbook or online education, growth opportunities, and compliance training. On-the-job training refers to learning the aspects of a job while one is doing the job. An employee may know the basics of what the job requires, but specifics like which forms to use, where materials are stored, and how to access the computer systems may require on-the-job training.
Job shadowing is similar in that the employee watches another employee do the job in order to develop the proper skills.
Another form of development is intellectual or professional development, which includes college or certification courses or job-specific trainings and seminars related to how to do one's job better.
Many organizations invest heavily in providing training and development to their employees in order to increase their knowledge and skills. With the growth of online learning, much of this training has become available via webinars and online courses, but it is still very common to conduct in-person trainings or attend training seminars or conferences with other professionals in the field.
Many professionals also voluntarily take additional training and development courses in order to be seen as experts in their fields. Professional organizations often offer their members options to increase their development and many have specific certifications that must be obtained through extensive training and development. The Six Sigma certification, Professional in Human Resources (PHR) certification, and Certified Professional in Learning and Performance (CPLP) certification are just a few examples of these forms of HR development that require continued education, training, and testing.
Growth opportunities are another highly valuable aspect of HR development. Employees want to grow in their professional careers as well as in knowledge and training, and offering opportunities for career growth is fundamental to the development of employees. Growth opportunities are both a form of HR development and one of its goals because the purpose of development, for many employees, is to grow in their career.
Human resources
planning
Administration and operations used to be the two role areas of HR. The
strategic planning component came into play as a result of companies
recognizing the need to consider HR needs in goals and strategies. HR directors
commonly sit on company executive teams because of the HR planning function.
Numbers and types of employees and the evolution of compensation systems are
among elements in the planning role. Various factors affecting Human Resource
planning Organizational Structure, Growth, Business Location, Demographic
changes, environmental uncertainties, expansion etc. Additionally, this area
encompasses the realm of talent
management. Human resource management
(HRM, or simply HR) is a function in organizations designed to maximize employee performance in service of an employer's strategic objectives.HR is primarily concerned with the management of people within organizations, focusing on policies and on systems .HR departments and units in organizations typically undertake a number of activities, including a)employee benefits b)design employee recruitment, c)"training and development",d) performance appraisal, and e)rewarding (e.g., managing pay and benefit systems), HR also concerns itself with f)industrial relations, that is, the balancing of organizational practices with requirements arising from collective bargaining and from governmental laws.
·
Human resource management (HRM) is the
governance of an organization’s employees.HRM is sometimes referred to simply
as human resources (HR).
HRM covers the following core areas:
- job design and analysis,
- workforce planning,
- recruitment and selection,
- training
and development,
- performance
management,
- compensation (remuneration), and
- legal issues.
HR is a product of the human
relations movement of the early 20th century, when
researchers began documenting ways of creating business value
through the strategic management of the workforce. The function was initially dominated by
transactional work, such as payroll and benefits
administration, but due to globalization,
company consolidation, technological advances, and further research, HR as of
2015 focuses on strategic initiatives like mergers
and acquisitions, talent management,
succession planning, industrial and labor relations,
and diversity and inclusion.
In startup companies,
trained professionals may perform HR duties. In larger companies, an entire
functional group is typically dedicated to the discipline, with staff
specializing in various HR tasks and functional leadership engaging in
strategic decision-making across the business. To train
practitioners for the profession, institutions of higher education,
professional associations, and companies themselves have established programs
of study dedicated explicitly to the duties of the function. Academic and
practitioner organizations likewise seek to engage and further the field of HR,
as evidenced by several field-specific publications. HR is also a field of
research study that is popular within the fields of management and industrial/organizational
psychology, with research articles appearing
in a number of academic journals, including those mentioned later in this
article.
In the current global work
environment, most companies focus on lowering employee turnover
and on retaining the talent and knowledge held by their workforce. New hiring
not only entails a high cost but also increases the risk of a newcomer not
being able to replace the person who worked in a position before. HR
departments strive to offer benefits that will appeal to workers, thus reducing
the risk of losing corporate knowledge.
The 14 Principles of Effective Management
It
is not easy to manage a diverse team of employees. There are certain factors
managers need to keep in mind when handling operations of an organization.
Managers
who were leading the way in the early 1900s had very little external resources
to use and develop their management practices. Theorist Henri Fayol
recognized this gap and built what is now the foundation of modern management theory.
When
he published “14 principles” in 1914 in the book called “Administration
Industrielle et Générale,” managers started to get the tools they needed to
lead. The management process became more effective. He also created a list of
the 6 primary
functions of management.
The functions go hand-in-hand with the Principles.
Fayol’s
practical list of principles guided early 20th-century managers to efficiently
organize and interact with employees. The 14 Principles of Management had a significant influence on present management theory.
The
list of principles is among the earliest theories of management and it is still
one of the most comprehensive one. Even though there are many more concepts and
theories now, Fayol is considered to be one of the most influential
contributors to the modern management concept.
- Division of Work: Managers
should divide work among individuals and groups. This ensures that effort and
attention will be focused on special portions of the work. Output can
increase if employees are specialized. This is because they become
increasingly skilled and efficient in their fields.
- Authority:Fayol
defined authority as “the right to give orders and the power to exact
obedience.” The managers should have the power to give orders. But they
should also remember that with authority comes responsibility.
- Discipline:It
is essential to maintain discipline. However, the methods for doing this
can vary. Successful company will need the common effort of workers. You
can apply penalties to inspire this common effort.
- Unity of Command:It
is best if employees have only one direct supervisor.
- Unity of Direction: Teams,
which have the same goal, should work under one manager’s direction. They
should use one plan. This will guarantee that the action is coordinated
properly. Unity of direction means the entire firm will move in the same
direction.
- Subordination of
Individual Interests to the General Interest
The
interests of any one employee should never be given more importance than the
interest of the group. Even the manager’s interest comes after the group.
- Remuneration: Fair
remuneration should be given to everyone. This ensures employee
satisfaction. Remuneration includes both financial and non-financial
compensation. There are many variables which should be considered before
deciding a worker’s rate of pay. Some of the variables are:
- Cost
of living;Supply of qualified
personnel;General business conditions;Success of the business
- Centralization:Centralization
refers to how involved employees are in the decision-making process.
Managers should aim for a suitable balance. Fayol defined this as
“lowering the importance of the subordinate role.” Decentralization means
to increase the importance. The degree of centralization or
decentralization a firm should adopt depends on the specific organization.
- Scalar Chain
Employees
should know their position in the organization’s hierarchy. Where they stand in
the chain of command is critical. Managers in hierarchies belong to a chain
like authority scale. Each manager has a certain amount of authority. The
President has the highest authority. The first-line supervisor has the least
authority. It is important for lower level managers to inform upper-level
managers about their work activities. The existence of a scalar chain is
essential. It is necessary to adhere to it.
- Order:The
workplace should be clean and safe for all employees. Everything should be
in its place. All the people related to a specific type of work
should be treated as equally as possible. This is good for efficiency and
coordination.
- Equity:Managers
must always be fair to staff. They are expected to maintain discipline
when needed and act with kindness when it seems right.
- Stability of
Tenure of Personnel:Managers
must make an effort to reduce employee turnover. They should give priority
to Personnel planning. Recruitment and Selection Costs are usually related
to hiring new workers. Increased product reject rates also cost a lot.
Retaining productive employees should be a high priority of management.
- Initiative:Employees
should have the necessary level of freedom they need to make and conduct
plans. Management should encourage worker initiative. New or extra
work activity undertaken through self-direction is an example.
- Esprit de Corps:Organizations
should always attempt to promote team spirit and unity. Management should
inspire harmony and general good feelings among the workers.
6
Functions of Management
Fayol
also introduced 6 primary functions of management, which complement the
Principles. The functions are:
- Forecasting;Planning’Organizing;Commanding;Coordinating;Controlling
The functions of management have been discussed
in details below:
- FORECASTING
This
involves examining the future and then making a plan of action.
- PLANNING;This
function is about making plans of actions. It is the most crucial part of
the management. It requires active participation of the entire
organization. Planning
should be coordinated on different levels.
- ORGANISING:This
entails providing capital, personnel and raw materials for running the
business. You will also have to build a structure to match the work.
Organizational structure depends on the size of the workforce.
- COMMANDING:This
is about optimizing return from all employees. A good manager would
communicate clearly and base his judgments on regular audits. Clear
knowledge of personnel helps creates unity and loyalty. It reduces
incompetence.
- COORDINATING:This
function means to unify and harmonize activities and efforts. It helps
maintain the balance between the activities of the organization as in
sales to production and procurement to production. Fayol suggested that
weekly conferences for department heads will solve problems.
- CONTROLLING:This
is about monitoring organizational
progress towards goal attainment.
|
HANDOUT THREE
CREATING
A POSITIVE WORK ENVIROMENT
There are several things a
leader/manager can do to make your work environment a positive one and to
facilitate a feeling of cooperation, teamwork and joy among your staff. Some
of these are:
1. Build Trust
Trust is the basic tenant for all
relationships, so building an environment of trust is one of the most
important things you can do to create a positive work environment. It's a
philosophy that must be demonstrated in everything you and your staff does.
Trust is about doing what you say you are going to do and being who you say
you are. It's about showing your staff in everything you do that you are
reliable, responsible and accountable, and that they can rely on you for
consistency. Also letting them know you expect the same from them. When your
words and behavior are congruent you foster trust. It will take some time for
your staff members to learn that you are a person of your word. If they see
that you are consistent you will build trust, but if they see your words
don't match your behaviors their trust in you will be destroyed. The
unfortunate thing about trust is that it takes a long time to build, but it's
very fragile and will break easily. Once broken, it takes an even longer time
to regain, and it may never be fully rebuilt. Therefore, it is of primary
importance that you are aware of all your words and behaviors and insure that
they are worthy of your employees' trust.
Even when dealing with
uncomfortable situations, if you are honest and up front it will make things
easier for everyone. What you say and what you do represent who you are. Even
if they don't like what you are saying, if you say it honestly,
compassionately and tactfully they will respect and trust you. Your
employees' level of trust will also be determined by how well you keep
confidences and don't disclose discussions that have been held in private.
They have to know they can talk with you about sensitive subjects and that
the information they share with you will be kept in strict confidence.
Confidentiality is critical in all aspects of your job. This also applies to
never discussing one employee with another, except in positive terms. Any
problems you are having with a team member must be kept between you and that
employee, and your supervisor, if applicable. A good manager never talks
negatively about his/her team.
EXERCISE: Three things I will do
to build trust with my staff are:………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Communicate positively and
openly.
In order to create a positive work
environment each employee needs to feel valued. This is best accomplished
through your listening to each person and honoring each one for what s/he has
to say. By doing this you will show that you value and respect every
individual. One important aspect of communicating openly is to meet with your
staff and discuss your organization's philosophy, values, mission and goals.
Ask for their ideas and thoughts on how they individually and as a team can
help your unit to exemplify these. Then lead a discussion on the ways they
all see these being fulfilled within your work group. After your staff has
shared their ideas, take time to share your own vision of how you see
everyone working together. Share how you see everyone working together as a
circle in which everyone is equal and on the same level, rather than a
pyramid where supervisors and administrators are at the top, and the staff is
at the bottom. Everyone is equal because every job is equally important in
fulfilling the mission of the organization. Also share your work ethic,
commitment to the job and facility, and your values. Talking about and
modeling your own work ethic will set an example of what your expectations
are for your staff and their behavior. This includes:
" Being accountable to the
job. " Showing up on time and with a positive attitude. " Being
willingly taking on tasks and assignments. " Being proud of your
facility and that you are a part of it. " Treating everyone with respect
and in a friendly manner. " Focusing on work and leaving personal issues
outside the workplace. " Seeing your work as an opportunity for
continuous personal growth and lifelong learning.
Sometimes it helps with a
discussion like this to use a board or flip chart and colored pens so you can
write thoughts, goals and ideas as your team comes up with them. If they are
having a hard time getting started, you can write three of your own goals and
then ask the group to add to the list. This exercise will help all of your
team members focus on where they would like to see the unit be in the next
six months. These goals can then be reviewed at staff meetings to see how
they are being met. It's through these means of open communication that each
member of the work group understands how they fit into the unit and how they
impact where it is going.
EXERCISE: I will create an
atmosphere of open communication by: …………………………………………………………………………………….
3. Expect The Best From Your
Staff
There is a concept called 'The
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy' which states that people generally will perform in
the way others expect them to perform. So, if you have high expectations for
your staff, treat them as if they are capable, competent people and expect
them to function as such, they will rise to the occasion and be the excellent
employees you see them to be. However, if you micromanage them, expect them
to be mediocre and treat them as if they can't function well on their own,
that is the behavior they will give you. A good supervisor always has high
expectations for his/her staff and treats them accordingly.
EXERCISE: Three ways I will let my
staff know I believe they are capable and competent are:………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. Create Team Spirit
One of our basic human needs is to
feel we belong to something bigger than ourselves, and for many people that
need is met by being part of a supportive work group. As a supervisor, part
of your job is to create a feeling of unity among your staff. This unity will
help your team members feel valued and that they belong. As a result they
will want to be at work, tardiness and absenteeism will be minimal, your team
will function smoothly and your unit will be better able to carry out the
missions and goals of your organization.
To foster this team feeling you
must convey to the entire staff that every person plays an important role.
Encourage an attitude of cooperation rather than competition. When you create
team spirit and identity, staff members will see themselves as a group of
people all working for a common goal, rather than a bunch of individuals
competing with each other.
By letting each member know they
are a valued part of the team you will teach your staff members to respect
each other for their unique contributions. There are many group exercises
designed to foster this kind of unity. One easy exercise is to begin staff
meetings by going around the table and having each person say one nice thing
about the person on their right or left. Especially things they've noticed
about how they care for the residents. Acknowledging behaviors such as the
way Madison approaches residents with a gentle touch and always says their
name, or how Joe inquires if a resident is warm enough and offers to bring a
blanket. The way Ben shows he values the residents by taking the time to
listen and ask questions as they reflect on their life and the important job
they did in valuing and caring for their family, or the way Mary can always
be counted on to step in and help when extra hands are needed. Be sure to
acknowledge the little things that mean so much to the residents, their
families and coworkers that are the mark of an excellent caregiver.
An important aspect of creating
team spirit is demonstrating that you are open to communication from
everyone, including residents, families and staff. When you walk through the
unit be sure you smile, are friendly, and acknowledge people you pass. You
should always show that you are aware of and care about each person. This
will demonstrate to them that you are aware of them as people, and are also
aware of what's happening on the unit. By doing this you will also
demonstrate that you are willing to listen and are responsive to their needs.
Another exercise you can do
with your staff to increase their appreciation of each other and feeling of
team spirit is called Skill Appreciation. In this exercise team members
recognize and appreciate each other for the unique skills each brings to the
unit. Take time at one of your staff meetings to focus on this aspect. Give
each person a 3 x 5 card and ask them to write their name at the top. Have
each person place their card on the table in front of them, and then move one
place to the right so they're sitting in front of their neighbor's card. Then
ask them to write words of appreciation on the card of the co-worker,
including positive personal characteristics, attitudes and skills they bring
to the team. Examples may be things like:
1.
Ability to relate well with residents and families.
2.
Accuracy with med distribution.
3.
Ability to detect skin changes on bedridden residents.
4. Having
a positive attitude and kind word for everyone, etc.
Have team members continue moving
around the table and writing on cards until they are back at their original
place.
There are many other ways a
supervisor can foster team spirit. Some of these are:
EXERCISE: Three things I will do
to create team spirit are: ………………………………………………………………………………………………….
5. Give Recognition and
Appreciation
Whenever you can, 'catch people
being good' and make sure they and others know about it. Give recognition and
appreciation to everyone at every opportunity. For example: "Susan, I
appreciate your organizational skills and the way you organized your team
today to deliver quality care." "James, thank you for staying
overtime yesterday. I really appreciate your positive, can-do attitude."
When verbalizing appreciation try to make it as personal as possible. Rather
than just saying something vague like "good job", be specific about
the personal quality or skill your team member brought to the task.
Recognizing excellent job performance and attitude, and showing appreciation
for these things will go a long way towards making your staff members feel
that they are a valued and respected part of the team.
EXERCISE: Three ways I will give
recognition and appreciation to my staff are: ………………………………………………………………………………………..
6. Give Credit and Take
Responsibility
Always give credit for success to
your staff, and take responsibility when things don't go well. As the boss
it's your job to make sure your staff is well trained, capable and competent.
If for some reason they fail to perform their job in the expected manner,
it's your responsibility to insure that they receive further direction and
training so they will perform up to standards.
EXERCISE: I will give credit to my
staff by: …………………………………………………………...
7. Be Approachable
Always present an attitude of
approachability to your staff and customers. Indicate by your manner that you
are available and happy to speak with people from all levels and positions.
Also, always be prepared to listen to whatever they want to share with you,
and validate what you've heard. If they have concerns, tell them you will
look into it and get back to them by a certain time. Then be sure you do!
It's important that every day you go out and walk about your business in order
to connect with people. Be sure that as you walk through the business you
smile and make eye contact with everyone you pass. Act in a friendly manner,
call people by name, be approachable, and show interest in what's going on.
Also, have an open door policy, where anyone at any level is welcome to come
talk with you if they feel the need. When they do come talk with you, be
aware of your body language. Come around to the front of your desk and sit
facing them while you talk so that there is no physical barrier between you.
Indicate in everything you do that you respect and care about them and what
they are saying.
EXERCISE: Three ways I will make
myself available and be approachable to my staff are: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
8. Provide A Positive Physical
Environment
If at all possible insure that the
physical environment on your workplace is clean, bright, attractive and
cheerful. Make sure it has as much natural light as possible, and that each
staff member has room for their own personal space.
EXERCISE: I will improve our
physical environment at work by: ………………………………….
9. Make Staff Evaluations a
Positive Experience
One of the important duties of a
boss is to give staff evaluations. This should be a positive experience for
your staff members, and is a great opportunity for you to praise them for
their cooperative spirit and all their efforts in doing an excellent job.
It's also a good time to thank them for participating by bringing their
special characteristics and talents to the unit. Even if you need to discuss
some areas in which the employee may need improvement, you can still make it
a positive meeting by focusing on the good and all that they are doing
right.
Insure that the staff evaluation
is two-way. It's an opportunity for the employee to rate him/herself and also
to rate you and your business. It's also the time to mutually create their
career goals. Prior to the meeting, ask the employee to write out their
evaluation of how they think they are doing in their job. Also ask them to
write how they view you as a supervisor, and how they feel about working in
your business. You will fill out the organization's standard evaluation form
and write your thoughts on the employee's performance. Remember to keep it as
positive as possible, and make suggestions in a constructive, encouraging
manner.
Once you are in the meeting, ask
the employee to share what they have written, and then discuss it with them.
Then share your thoughts and what you have written. Some things to cover are:
This is also an opportunity for
you to revisit any difficult situations this staff member has experienced in
the past six months and insure that they are feeling OK about it and are
moving forward. You do this by asking:
One of the most difficult aspects
of a manager's job is counseling an employee who is not performing up to
standards. Always put a positive spin on whatever you say, even if it's
offering constructive suggestions. When dealing with negatives, separate all
emotions from the issues, and deal only with the facts. Ask the worker what
s/he can do differently next time. Ask how s/he would like to change his/her
behavior in order to perform up to standards. Then create a written work plan
to outline what the new behaviors will be and by when they will be
implemented.
If there has been a problem it
should not be a surprise to the employee when it's brought up at the
evaluation. It's probably been discussed at the time of the incident, and
several follow-up meetings will have been held regarding the progress or lack
of progress with this issue. If appropriate, evaluation time is the
opportunity for you to voice your appreciation for how the employee has
changed his or her behavior to improve the quality of their work.
Your role and responsibility as
the manager is to support the employee through this process. The outcome may
be that the employee will choose to continue working in your business or may
choose to leave.
At the end of the evaluation
process your staff member needs to be able to leave the meeting feeling that
he/she has some control and personal power over their work life. This is a
basic human need, and it's your job to support them by focusing on their
strengths rather than their weaknesses. This doesn't mean you don't address
their areas for growth, it just means that you focus on your belief in their
ability to perform according to the needs of your business.
The bottom line for all of this is
to remember that as the manager it's your job to make your work environment
one in which people can feel comfortable, have fun and can thrive. With a
little thought and creativity you can make it happen.
10. Make It Fun
Everyone wants to be where people
are having fun, so make your workplace feel happy and festive. Find reasons
to celebrate together, such as birthdays, birth of a baby or grandchild,
moving into a new house, etc., and having small parties to celebrate these
events. If possible provide a cake, and put up a sign or banner in the break
room saying "Today We Are Celebrating……………". Ask your employees
what would be fun for them and then implement what is feasible.
|
HANDOUT FOUR
WHO MAKE UP AGRICULTURE SECTOR IN KENYA?(Extension
and Advisory Services in Kenya )
|
A Brief History of Public Extension Policies, Resources and Advisory Activities in Kenya
Agricultural
extension in Kenya dates back to the early 1900s, but its only notable
success was in the dissemination of hybrid maize technology in the late 1960s
and early 1970s. The government through its Ministry of Agriculture provided
the bulk of extension services to both small scale farmers and commercial
producers. After the implementation of structural adjustment programs (SAPs)
in the 1980s, the Kenyan government came under considerable pressure to scale
down its dominant role in national economy (FAO 1997). Kenya’s agricultural
extension budget together with extension staff numbers has plummeted
significantly. At the same time, the performance of the public agricultural
extension service in Kenya was questioned and its effectiveness became a very
controversial subject (Gautam and Anderson 1999). The traditional public
extension system was perceived as outdated, top-down, paternalistic, uniform
(one-sizefits-all), inflexible,
subject to bureaucratic inefficiencies and therefore unable to cope with the
dynamic demands of modern agriculture
To
respond to these challenges, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
Development formulated the National Agricultural Extension Policy (NEAP) to
guide improvements in delivery of extension services in 2001. The NEAP
recognized the need to diversify, decentralize and strengthen the provision
of extension services to increase their sustainability and relevance to
farmers. The NEAP was meant to form the basis for all extension work within
the government and in its interaction with other stakeholders in agricultural
research and development. To operationalize the NEAP, the ministry prepared a
National Agricultural and Livestock Extension Program (NALEP) and NALEP
Implementation Framework. The policy has been criticized for been ambiguous
on the specific roles of various actors in extension provision and
particularly for failing to specify how the private sector would be
encouraged to play a stronger role in extension. Thus there has been a desire
to reform the public extension into a system that is cost effective,
responsive to farmers’ needs, broad-based in service delivery, accountable
and with in-built sustainability mechanisms. There has also been a call for
stronger involvement of stakeholders and beneficiaries at grass root level.
Rural
and agricultural development is integral to any strategy to alleviate poverty
and promote broad-based growth in Kenya, and the importance of agricultural
extension in relation to the fight against poverty has been underscored in
the Strategy to Revitalize Agriculture (SRA) (Republic of Kenya, 2004). It is
envisaged that the economic expansion momentum will be consolidated further
through Vision 2030 Strategy which is a successor to the ERS (MOA, 2008).
Extension is identified as a critical area that requires immediate action and
is one among the six SRA first-tracked
interventions. Kenya’s small farmers had traditionally benefited from two
major types of extension systems. The first is the government extension
system focusing on mainly food crops. The government has tried a number of
extension styles, including progressive
or model farmer approach, integrated agricultural rural development approach,
farm management, training and visit (T&V), attachment of officers to
organizations, farming systems approaches and farmer field schools (FFS).
The second type of extension system includes the commodity-based systems run by government parastatals, out grower
companies, and cooperatives. The commodity-based extension deals mainly,
but not exclusively with commercial crops such as coffee, tea, pyrethrum and
sisal. These extension services are deliberately motivated by profits, and
tend to work well when both the firm and farmers clearly benefit from the
extension expenditures.
As a
result of flaws in the public extension system, a third type of extension
service has emerged: the privatized
agricultural extension initiatives provided by private companies,
non-governmental organizations (NGOs), community-based organizations (CBOs),
and faith-based organizations (FBOs). Extension is now broadly seen as a
complex system where services are provided by a range of private and public
sector entities. The National Agricultural and Livestock Extension Program
(NALEP), the main government extension program is implemented by the Ministry
of Agriculture and supported by the government of Kenya (NALEP-GoK) and
Swedish International Development Agency (NALEP-Sida). The program aims at
enhancing the contribution of agriculture and livestock to social and
economic development and poverty alleviation by promoting pluralistic,
efficient and demand-driven extension services to farmers and
agro-pastoralists (Muyanga and Jayne, 2006). But there are concerns about the
effectiveness of the pluralistic agricultural extension systems involving
both public and private extension delivery methods in reaching target farmers
and producing expected results of lifting the standard of living of small
holder rural farmers as well as boosting businesses for commercial farmers.
At the national level, Kenya public extension
comprises 5470 staff members and is managed by a team of 910 senior staff
according to the MEAS report (2011). One hundred and three staff member has a
Master of Science degree, four staff was trained at the PhD level and the
rest of the team studied at the bachelor level and agricultural diploma.
Women account for 32.3% of senior management staff. There are 3,086
subject matter specialists to provide backstopping support to the field
staff, all of them have a bachelor degree and 33.0% of which are female. The
total number of field workers is 1464, they all hold a 2 to 3 year
agricultural diploma, and 32.2% are female. There are two other groups of
workers: Information, Communication & Technology (ICT) Support Staff and
In-Service Training Staff. Although the public sector does not employ
in-service training staff, 10 workers are involved in ICT support services
(Table 1).
Table
1: Human Resources in the Public Extension Service in Kenya (Government or
Ministry -based Extension Organization)
Source:
IFPRI/FAO/IICA Worldwide Extension Study, 2011
1.
Major
Institutions Providing Extension/advisory Services in the Country
A)Public
Sector
Agricultural
extension services can be potentially provided by three main groups: the
public sector, the private nonprofit sector and the private for-profit
sector. The public sector includes Ministries and Departments of Agriculture
and Agricultural Research Centers. In Kenya, the public sector is represented
by the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) through the Direction of Extension,
Research and Technical Training, the Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries
Development (MLFD) through Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute
(KMFRI), Kenyata University, other universities and research institutions
around the country. These institutions provide extension services through
various departments and institutes some of which are listed below:
B)Private
Sector Firms
The
private non-profit sector includes local and international NGOs, foundations,
community boards and associations, bilateral and multilateral aid projects
and other non-commercial associations. The private for-profit sector consists
of commercial production and marketing firms (such as input manufacturers and
distributors), commercial farmer or farmer group operated enterprises where
farmers are both users and providers of agriculture information,
agro-marketing and processing firms. In Kenya, while most extension providers
in the past focused on production, currently, the private sector extension
providers are going beyond production to support value addition activities
and link farmers with output markets. Public sector collaborates with other
development agents and the government offering extension services, to reduce
cost on the part of the private non-commercial extension providers (Muyanga
and Jayne, 2006). Private companies co-finance major agricultural shows and
also invest in extension which they considered as part of their marketing
strategy.
C)Non-Governmental
Organizations and other Donors
In
Kenya, private Non-Governmental, Faith based and Community-based organizations
are currently providing farmers with agricultural extension services. Most of
them are promoting commercialization of small-scale agriculture, and provide
training on marketing and calenderization (not to grow when everybody is
growing to avoid depressing output prices). The majority of NGOs has
extension staff trained in relevant agricultural disciplines. Most of these
NGOs rely on the government research institution such as KARI for technology,
and others have established links with private companies as well as
international research centers (ICRAFT, ICUPE, CYMMIT, CIP ICRISAT and IITA).
Following is a list of selected Kenyan NGOs involved in agricultural
production and agribusiness supply chain development
D)Farmer Based Organizations and
Cooperatives
Farmers have the
tradition of organizing themselves at local level into membership-based
entities (associations, cooperatives). In Kenya, farmers have organized
themselves in groups to facilitate such ventures as the marketing of
agricultural output, mutual help assistance and acquisition of agricultural
credit. Community labor-sharing groups in Kenya are one of the successful
farmers’ based organizations providing supply of labor to farmers during
critical periods of the cropping season. These groups allow the members to
help each other to accomplish heavy farm tasks such as ploughing, planting,
and harvesting. Some development organizations try to build on these local
institutions to carry out their agricultural extension work. The work groups
are common in many parts of Kenya, and are known by several names, including
saga, ngwatio, bulala and m'wthya. They are used by NGO and other partners to
promote and share new farming and conservation practices. Using community
groups is a form of farmer-to-farmer extension, as farmers learn a particular
innovation and share their knowledge and skills to other farmers. Farmers are
generally enthusiastic to share their skills with other farmers. Extension
cannot be expected to reach every farmer - hence, the need for selectivity
and reliance on farmer-to-farmer dissemination (World Bank, 1999). The Kenya
National Federation of Agricultural Producers (KNFAP) is the largest farmers
union in Kenya whose mission is to “empower its members to make informed
choices for improved sustainable livelihoods”. Other farmer organizations
that provide some agricultural information and services to their members
include: Fresh Produce Exporters Association of Kenya (FPEAK); Kenya Flower
Council; Cereal Growers Association and Co-operative Societies.
2.
Enabling (or Disabling) Environment.
It is proven that
an effective extension system improves agricultural productivity through
providing farmers with relevant information that help them optimize the use
of resources. In its strategy to alleviate poverty and promote growth, the
government of Kenya through the Ministry of Agriculture has put in place a
National Agricultural Extension Policy to guide improvements in delivery of
extension services. A complex extension system involving the public sector
represented by the government and a range of private entities is working
collaboratively to reach out to both small scale and commercial farmers in
every part of the country. Kenya can boast of substantial advances in the use
of ICTs especially the use of mobile phone and internet services in the
provision of agricultural advisory services to farmers. However, there are
concerns about the effectiveness of the pluralistic agricultural extension
systems involving both public and private extension delivery methods,
especially the ability for limited resources farmers to access paid extension
services. Private extension is not a
substitute for public extension and the public sector should continue funding
extension significantly but in ways that do not duplicate services already
being provided by sustainable alternative extension providers.
Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
for Agriculture and Extension
The development of the information
society in Kenya can be reviewed in terms of the development of ICTs,
informatics, e-government or telecommunications reform policies, which have
been actively pursued since the early 1980s. According to the proposed
National ICT Policy, there has been rapid growth in ICT development and
adoption in Kenya. The 2009 World Bank statistics report indicated that 48.7
percent of the population of Kenya own and operate a mobile phone, and 10
percent of the population had access to internet in 2009. Several ICT tools
used in disseminating agricultural knowledge and technology elsewhere
including email, internet, phone, radio, TV, and print are found in Kenya. An
illustration of a potentially beneficial application of new technologies is
found in mobile telephony. The SMS-based service offers farmers a timely
source of information, as they no longer have to wait for newspapers to
publish the information a day after the price is reported (Mungai, 2005). The Mumias Information & Welfare Advances (MIWA)
project is currently (2011) testing the effectiveness of cell phone messages
to a subset of farmers on recommended agronomic practices such as weeding,
trash lining, and gapping. KACE launched an SMS-based information
service—SokoniSMS64—for farmers. The SokoniSMS service enables these farmers
to receive market prices in various market centers around the country through
their mobile phones. Equipped with this information, the farmers are able to
determine the most profitable market center to transport products to and
circumvent middlemen who usually offer to buy the products at much lower
prices. Another example of ICT use is infonet biovision; it is a web-based
information platform offering trainers, extension workers and farmers in
East Africa a quick access to up-to-date and locally relevant information in
order to optimize their livelihoods in a safe, effective, sustainable and
ecologically sound way.
Training for Extension Professionals
The
quality of extension staff may well be a more important constraint on the
diffusion of innovations and adoption of new technologies than the farmers
themselves. Training agricultural professionals increases the skills of
extension staff in the field. Agricultural training institutions in Kenya
(Kenyatta University and Egerton University) like in many other East African
countries provide formal training in agriculture and agriculture related
fields at the degree and diploma level. The Directorate of Extension,
Research Liaison and Technical Training of the Ministry of Agriculture
oversees the planning, utilization and management of technical human
resources requirement and training needs for the Ministry. The Ministry has
two colleges; Bukura Agricultural College for training and upgrading skills
of serving officers from certificate to diploma level and Embu Agricultural
Staff Training College (EAST Colllege), which focuses on short refresher
courses for in-service agricultural professionals (MOA, 2008).
References
MOA.
2008. The Ministry at a Glance. Ministry of Agriculture, Republic of Kenya,
Office of the Permanent Secretary, April 2008. http://www.kilimo.go.ke/kilimo_docs/pdf/moa_at_glance.pdf
Mungai,
W. 2005. Using ICTs for Poverty Reduction and Environmental Protection in
Kenya:
The “M-vironment” Approach in A Developing
Connection: Bridging the Policy gap between the Information Society and
Sustainable Development. International Institute for Sustainable Development
(IISD) http://www.iisd.org/pdf/2005/networks_dev_connection_kenya.pdf
Muyanga,
M. and T. S. Jayne. 2006. Agricultural Extension in Kenya: Practice and
Policy
Lessons. Tegemeo Working paper 26/2006. Tegemeo
Institute of Agricultural Policy and Development, Egerton University,
Nairobi. www.oerafrica.org/ResourceDownload.aspx?assetid=2325
World
Bank. 1999. Agricultural Extension the Kenya Experience. Précis World Bank Operations
Evaluation Department, Winter 1999. Number 198. http://lnweb90.worldbank.org/oed/oeddoclib.nsf/docunidviewforjavasearch/b728d887fc2b754d852568bd005a8c19/$file/198precis.pdf
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
HANDOUT FIVE
A Theory of Human Motivation
A. H. Maslow (1943)
I. INTRODUCTION
The conclusions about
human motivation may be briefly summarized as follows:
1. The
integrated wholeness of the organism must be one of the foundation stones of
motivation theory.
2. The hunger drive
(or any other physiological drive) was rejected as a centering point or model
for a definitive theory of motivation. Any drive that is somatically based and
localizable was shown to be atypical rather than typical in human motivation.
3. Such a theory
should stress and center itself upon ultimate or basic goals rather than
partial or superficial ones, upon ends rather than means to these ends. Such a
stress would imply a more central place for unconscious than for conscious
motivations.
4. There are usually
available various cultural paths to the same goal. Therefore conscious,
specific, local-cultural desires are not as fundamental in motivation theory as
the more basic, unconscious goals.
5. Any motivated
behavior, either preparatory or consummatory, must be understood to be a
channel through which many basic needs may be simultaneously expressed or
satisfied. Typically an act has more than one motivation.
6. Practically all
organismic states are to be understood as motivated and as motivating.
7. Human needs
arrange themselves in hierarchies of pre-potency. That is to say, the
appearance of one need usually rests on the prior satisfaction of another, more
pre-potent need. Man is a perpetually wanting animal. Also no need or drive can
be treated as if it were isolated or discrete; every drive is related to the
state of satisfaction or dissatisfaction of other drives.
8. Lists of
drives will get us nowhere for various theoretical and practical reasons.
Furthermore any classification of motivations [p. 371] must deal with the
problem of levels of specificity or generalization the motives to be
classified.
9. Classifications
of motivations must be based upon goals rather than upon instigating drives or
motivated behavior.
10. Motivation
theory should be human-centered rather than animal-centered.
11. The situation or
the field in which the organism reacts must be taken into account but the field
alone can rarely serve as an exclusive explanation for behavior. Furthermore
the field itself must be interpreted in terms of the organism. Field theory
cannot be a substitute for motivation theory.
12. Not only the
integration of the organism must be taken into account, but also the
possibility of isolated, specific, partial or segmental reactions. It has since
become necessary to add to these another affirmation.
13. Motivation
theory is not synonymous with behavior theory. The motivations are only one
class of determinants of behavior. While behavior is almost always motivated,
it is also almost always biologically, culturally and situationally determined
as well.
It is far easier to
perceive and to criticize the aspects in motivation theory than to remedy them.
Mostly this is because of the very serious lack of sound data in this area. I
conceive this lack of sound facts to be due primarily to the absence of a valid
theory of motivation. The present theory then must be considered to be a suggested
program or framework for future research and must stand or fall, not so much on
facts available or evidence presented, as upon researches to be done,
researches suggested.
II. THE BASIC NEEDS
a)The 'physiological' needs. -- The needs that are usually
taken as the starting point for motivation theory are the so-called
physiological drives. Two recent lines of research make it necessary to revise
our customary notions about these needs, first, the development of the concept
of homeostasis, and second, the finding that appetites (preferential choices
among foods) are a fairly efficient indication of actual needs or lacks in the
body.
Homeostasis refers
to the body's automatic efforts to maintain a constant, normal state of the
blood stream. Cannon has described this
process for (1) the water content of the blood, (2) salt content, (3) sugar
content, (4) protein content, (5) fat content, (6) calcium content, (7) oxygen
content, (8) constant hydrogen-ion level (acid-base balance) and (9) constant
temperature of the blood. Obviously this list can be extended to include other
minerals, the hormones, vitamins, etc.
If the body lacks
some chemical, the individual will tend to develop a specific appetite or
partial hunger for that food element.
Thus it seems
impossible as well as useless to make any list of fundamental physiological
needs for they can come to almost any number one might wish, depending on the
degree of specificity of description. We can not identify all physiological
needs as homeostatic. That sexual desire, sleepiness, sheer activity and
maternal behavior in animals, are homeostatic, has not yet been demonstrated.
Furthermore, this list would not include the various sensory pleasures (tastes,
smells, tickling, stroking) which are probably physiological and which may
become the goals of motivated behavior.
It is been noted that
these physiological drives or needs are to be considered unusual rather than
typical because they are isolable, and because they are localizable
somatically. That is to say, they are relatively independent of each other, of
other motivations [p. 373] and of the organism as a whole, and secondly, in
many cases, it is possible to demonstrate a localized, underlying somatic base
for the drive. This is true less generally than has been thought (exceptions
are fatigue, sleepiness, maternal responses) but it is still true in the
classic instances of hunger, sex, and thirst.
It should be pointed
out again that any of the physiological needs and the consummatory behavior
involved with them serve as channels for all sorts of other needs as well. That
is to say, the person who thinks he is hungry may actually be seeking more for comfort,
or dependence, than for vitamins or proteins. Conversely, it is possible to
satisfy the hunger need in part by other activities such as drinking water or
smoking cigarettes. In other words, relatively isolable as these physiological
needs are, they are not completely so.
Undoubtedly these
physiological needs are the most pre-potent of all needs. What this means
specifically is, that in the human being who is missing everything in life in
an extreme fashion, it is most likely that the major motivation would be the
physiological needs rather than any others. A person who is lacking food,
safety, love, and esteem would most probably hunger for food more strongly than
for anything else.
Another peculiar
characteristic of the human organism when it is dominated by a certain need is
that the whole philosophy of the future tends also to change. For our
chronically and extremely hungry man, Utopia can be defined very simply as a
place where there is plenty of food. He tends to think that, if only he is guaranteed
food for the rest of his life, he will be perfectly happy and will never want
anything more. Life itself tends to be defined in terms of eating. Anything
else will be defined as unimportant. Freedom, love, community feeling, respect,
philosophy, may all be waved aside as fripperies which are useless since they
fail to fill the stomach. Such a man may fairly be said to live by bread alone.
It cannot possibly
be denied that such things are true but their generality can be denied.
Emergency conditions are, almost by definition, rare in the normally
functioning peaceful society. That this truism can be forgotten is due mainly
to two reasons. First, rats have few motivations other than physiological ones,
and since so much of the research upon motivation has been made with these
animals, it is easy to carry the rat-picture over to the human being. Secondly,
it is too often not realized that culture itself is an adaptive tool, one of
whose main functions is to make the physiological emergencies come less and
less often. In most of the known societies, chronic extreme hunger of the
emergency type is rare, rather than common. In any case, this is still true in
the United States. The average American citizen is experiencing appetite rather
than hunger when he says ". Obviously a good way to obscure the 'higher'
motivations, and to get a lopsided view of human capacities and human nature,
is to make the organism extremely and chronically hungry or thirsty. Anyone who
attempts to make an emergency picture into a typical one, and who will measure
all of man's goals and desires by his behavior during extreme physiological
deprivation is certainly being blind to many things. It is quite true that man
lives by bread alone -- when there is no bread. But what happens to man's
desires when there is plenty of bread and when his belly is chronically filled?
At once other
(and 'higher') needs emerge and these, rather than physiological hungers,
dominate the organism. And when these in turn are satisfied, again new (and
still 'higher') needs emerge and so on. This is what we mean by saying that the
basic human needs are organized into a hierarchy of relative prepotency.
One main implication
of this phrasing is that gratification becomes as important a concept as
deprivation in motivation theory, for it releases the organism from the
domination of a relatively more physiological need, permitting thereby the
emergence of other more social goals. The physiological needs, along with their
partial goals, when chronically gratified cease to exist as active determinants
or organizers of behavior. They now exist only in a potential fashion in the
sense that they may emerge again to dominate the organism if they are thwarted.
But a want that is satisfied is no longer a want. The organism is dominated and
its behavior organized only by unsatisfied needs. If hunger is satisfied, it
becomes unimportant in the current dynamics of the individual.
b)The safety needs. -- If the physiological needs are
relatively well gratified, there then emerges a new set of needs, which we may
categorize roughly as the safety needs. All that has been said of the
physiological needs is equally true, although in lesser degree, of these
desires. The organism may equally well be wholly dominated by them. They may
serve as the almost exclusive organizers of behavior, recruiting all the
capacities of the organism in their service, and we may then fairly describe
the whole organism as a safety-seeking mechanism. Again we may say of the
receptors, the effectors, of the intellect and the other capacities that they
are primarily safety-seeking tools. Again, as in the hungry man, we find that
the dominating goal is a strong determinant not only of his current
world-outlook and philosophy but also of his philosophy of the future.
Practically everything looks less important than safety, (even sometimes the
physiological needs which being satisfied, are now underestimated). A man, in
this state, if it is extreme enough and chronic enough, may be characterized as
living almost for safety alone.
Although in this
paper we are interested primarily in the needs of the adult, we can approach an
understanding of his safety needs perhaps more efficiently by observation of
infants and children, in whom these needs are much more simple and obvious. One
reason for the clearer appearance of the threat or danger reaction in infants,
is that they do not inhibit this reaction at all, whereas adults in our society
have been taught to inhibit it at all costs. Thus even when adults do feel their
safety to be threatened we may not be able to see this on the surface. Infants
will react in a total fashion and as if they were endangered, if they are
disturbed or dropped suddenly, startled by loud noises, flashing light, or
other unusual sensory stimulation, by rough handling, by general loss of
support in the mother's arms, or by inadequate support
In infants we can
also see a much more direct reaction to bodily illnesses of various kinds.
Sometimes these illnesses seem to be immediately and per se threatening
and seem to make the child feel unsafe. For instance, vomiting, colic or other
sharp pains seem to make the child look at the whole world in a different way.
At such a moment of pain, it may be postulated that, for the child, the
appearance of the whole world suddenly changes from sunniness to darkness, so
to speak, and becomes a place in which anything at all might happen, in which
previously stable things have suddenly become unstable. Thus a child who
because of some bad food is taken ill may, for a day or two, develop fear,
nightmares, and a need for protection and reassurance never seen in him before
his illness.
Another indication
of the child's need for safety is his preference for some kind of undisrupted
routine or rhythm. He seems to want a predictable, orderly world. For instance,
injustice, unfairness, or inconsistency in the parents seems to make a child
feel anxious and unsafe. This attitude may be not so much because of the
injustice per se or any particular pains involved, but rather because
this treatment threatens to make the world look unreliable, or unsafe, or
unpredictable. Young children seem to thrive better under a system which has at
least a skeletal outline of rigidity, In which there is a schedule of a kind,
some sort of routine, something that can be counted upon, not only for the
present but also far into the future. Perhaps one could express this more
accurately by saying that the child needs an organized world rather than an
unorganized or unstructured one.
The central role of
the parents and the normal family setup are indisputable. Quarreling, physical
assault, separation, divorce or death within the family may be particularly
terrifying. Also parental outbursts of rage or threats of punishment directed
to the child, calling him names, speaking to him harshly, shaking him, handling
him roughly, or actual physical punishment sometimes elicit such total panic
and terror in the child that we must assume more is involved than the physical
pain alone. While it is true that in some children this terror may represent
also a fear of loss of parental love, it can also occur in completely rejected
children, who seem to cling to the hating parents more for sheer safety and
protection than because of hope of love.
Confronting the
average child with new, unfamiliar, strange, unmanageable stimuli or situations
will too frequently elicit the danger or terror reaction, as for example,
getting lost or even being separated from the parents for a short time, being
confronted with new faces, new situations or new tasks, the sight of strange,
unfamiliar or uncontrollable objects, illness or death. Particularly at such
times, the child's frantic clinging to his parents is eloquent testimony to
their role as protectors (quite apart from their roles as food-givers and
love-givers).
From these and
similar observations, we may generalize and say that the average child in our
society generally prefers a safe, orderly, predictable, organized world, which
he can count, on, and in which unexpected, unmanageable or other dangerous
things do not happen, and in which, in any case, he has all-powerful parents
who protect and shield him from harm.
That these reactions
may so easily be observed in children is in a way a proof of the fact that
children in our society, feel too unsafe (or, in a word, are badly brought up).
Children who are reared in an unthreatening, loving family do not ordinarily
react as we have described above .In such children the danger reactions are apt
to come mostly to objects or situations that adults too would consider
dangerous.
The healthy, normal,
fortunate adult in our culture is largely satisfied in his safety needs. The
peaceful, smoothly running, 'good' society ordinarily makes its members feel
safe enough from wild animals, extremes of temperature, criminals, assault and
murder, tyranny, etc. Therefore, in a very real sense, he no longer has any
safety needs as active motivators. Just as a sated man no longer feels hungry,
a safe man no longer feels endangered. If we wish to see these needs directly
and clearly we must turn to neurotic or near-neurotic individuals, and to the
economic and social underdogs. In between these extremes, we can perceive the
expressions of safety needs only in such phenomena as, for instance, the common
preference for a job with tenure and protection, the desire for a savings
account, and for insurance of various kinds (medical, dental, unemployment,
disability, old age).
Other broader
aspects of the attempt to seek safety and stability in the world are seen in
the very common preference for familiar rather than unfamiliar things, or for
the known rather than the unknown. The tendency to have some religion or
world-philosophy that organizes the universe and the men in it into some sort
of satisfactorily coherent, meaningful whole is also in part motivated by
safety-seeking. Here too we may list science and philosophy in general as
partially motivated by the safety needs (we shall see later that there are also
other motivations to scientific, philosophical or religious endeavor).
Otherwise the need
for safety is seen as an active and dominant mobilizer of the organism's
resources only in emergencies, e. g., war, disease, natural
catastrophes, crime waves, societal disorganization, neurosis, brain injury,
chronically bad situation.
Some neurotic adults
in our society are, in many ways, like the unsafe child in their desire for
safety, although in the former it takes on a somewhat special appearance. Their
reaction is often to unknown, psychological dangers in a world that is
perceived to be hostile, overwhelming and threatening. Such a person behaves as
if a great catastrophe were almost always impending, i.e., he is usually
responding as if to an emergency. His safety needs often find specific [p. 380]
expression in a search for a protector, or a stronger person on whom he may
depend, or perhaps, a Fuehrer.
The neurotic
individual may be described in a slightly different way with some usefulness as
a grown-up person who retains his childish attitudes toward the world. That is
to say, a neurotic adult may be said to behave 'as if' he were actually afraid
of a spanking, or of his mother's disapproval, or of being abandoned by his
parents, or having his food taken away from him. It is as if his childish
attitudes of fear and threat reaction to a dangerous world had gone
underground, and untouched by the growing up and learning processes, were now
ready to be called out by any stimulus that would make a child feel endangered
and threatened.
The neurosis in
which the search for safety takes its dearest form is in the
compulsive-obsessive neurosis. Compulsive-obsessives try frantically to order
and stabilize the world so that no unmanageable, unexpected or unfamiliar
dangers will ever appear They hedge themselves about with all sorts of
ceremonials, rules and formulas so that every possible contingency may be
provided for and so that no new contingencies may appear. They are much like
the brain injured cases, described by Goldstein who manage to maintain their
equilibrium by avoiding everything unfamiliar and strange and by ordering their
restricted world in such a neat, disciplined, orderly fashion that everything
in the world can be counted upon. They try to arrange the world so that
anything unexpected (dangers) cannot possibly occur. If, through no fault of
their own, something unexpected does occur, they go into a panic reaction as if
this unexpected occurrence constituted a grave danger. What we can see only as
a none-too-strong preference in the healthy person, e. g., preference
for the familiar, becomes a life-and-death. necessity in abnormal cases.
c)The love needs. -- If both the physiological and the
safety needs are fairly well gratified, then there will emerge the love and
affection and belongingness needs, and the whole cycle already described will
repeat itself with this new center. Now the person will feel keenly, as never
before, the absence of friends, or a sweetheart, or a wife, or children. He
will hunger for affectionate relations with people in general, namely, for a
place in his group, and he will strive with great intensity to achieve this
goal. He will want to attain such a place more than anything else in the world
and may even forget that once, when he was hungry, he sneered at love.
In our society the
thwarting of these needs is the most commonly found core in cases of
maladjustment and more severe psychopathology. Love and affection, as well as
their possible expression in sexuality, are generally looked upon with
ambivalence and are customarily hedged about with many restrictions and
inhibitions. Practically all theorists of psychopathology have stressed
thwarting of the love needs as basic in the picture of maladjustment. Many
clinical studies have therefore been made of this need and we know more about
it perhaps than any of the other needs except the physiological ones .
One thing that must
be stressed at this point is that love is not synonymous with sex. Sex may be
studied as a purely physiological need. Ordinarily sexual behavior is
multi-determined, that is to say, determined not only by sexual but also by
other needs, chief among which are the love and affection needs. Also not to be
overlooked is the fact that the love needs involve both giving and
receiving love.
d)The esteem needs. -- All people in our society (with a few
pathological exceptions) have a need or desire for a stable, firmly based,
(usually) high evaluation of themselves, for self-respect, or self-esteem, and
for the esteem of others. By firmly based self-esteem, we mean that which is
soundly based upon real capacity, achievement and respect from others. These
needs may be classified into two subsidiary sets. These are, first, the desire
for strength, for achievement, for adequacy, for confidence in the face of the
world, and for independence and freedom.[5] Secondly,
we have what [p. 382] we may call the desire for reputation or prestige
(defining it as respect or esteem from other people), recognition, attention,
importance or appreciation.[6] These
needs have been relatively stressed by Alfred Adler and his followers, and have
been relatively neglected by Freud and the psychoanalysts. More and more today
however there is appearing widespread appreciation of their central importance.
Satisfaction of the
self-esteem need leads to feelings of self-confidence, worth, strength,
capability and adequacy of being useful and necessary in the world. But
thwarting of these needs produces feelings of inferiority, of weakness and of
helplessness. These feelings in turn give rise to either basic discouragement
or else compensatory or neurotic trends. An appreciation of the necessity of
basic self-confidence and an understanding of how helpless people are without
it, can be easily gained from a study of severe traumatic neurosis
e)The need for self-actualization. -- Even if all these
needs are satisfied, we may still often (if not always) expect that a new
discontent and restlessness will soon develop, unless the individual is doing
what he is fitted for. A musician must make music, an artist must paint, a poet
must write, if he is to be ultimately happy. What a man can be, he must
be. This need we may call self-actualization.
This term, first
coined by Kurt Goldstein, is being used in this paper in a much more specific
and limited fashion. It refers to the desire for self-fulfillment, namely, to the tendency for him to become
actualized in what he is potentially.
This tendency might be phrased as the desire to become more and more what one
is, to become everything that one is capable of becoming.
The specific form
that these needs will take will of course vary greatly from person to person.
In one individual it may take the form of the desire to be an ideal mother, in
another it may be expressed athletically, and in still another it may be
expressed in painting pictures or in inventions. It is not necessarily a
creative urge although in people who have any capacities for creation it will
take this form.
The clear emergence
of these needs rests upon prior satisfaction of the physiological, safety, love
and esteem needs. We shall call people who are satisfied in these needs,
basically satisfied people, and it is from these that we may expect the fullest
(and healthiest) creativeness.
The preconditions for self actualization. -- There are
certain conditions which are immediate prerequisites for the basic need
satisfactions. Danger to these is reacted to almost as if it were a direct
danger to the basic needs themselves. Such conditions as freedom to speak, freedom to do what one wishes so long as no harm
is done to others, freedom to express one's self, freedom to investigate and seek for information, freedom to defend
one's self, justice, fairness, honesty, orderliness in the group are examples
of such preconditions for basic need satisfactions. Thwarting in these freedoms
will be reacted to with a threat or emergency response. These conditions are
not ends in themselves but they are almost so since they are so closely
related to the basic needs, which are apparently the only ends in themselves.
These conditions are defended because without them the basic satisfactions are
quite impossible, or at least, very severely endangered
The desires to
know and to understand. -- So far, we have mentioned the cognitive needs
only in passing. Acquiring knowledge and systematizing the universe have been
considered as, in part, techniques for the achievement of basic safety in the
world, or, for the intelligent man, expressions of self-actualization.
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow wanted to
understand what motivates people. He believed that individuals possess a set of
motivation systems unrelated to rewards or unconscious desires.
Maslow (1943) stated
that people are motivated to achieve certain needs. When one need is fulfilled
a person seeks to fullfil the next one, and so on.
The earliest and most widespread
version of Maslow's (1943, 1954) hierarchy of needs includes five
motivational needs, often depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid.
This five stage model
can be divided into basic (or deficiency) needs (e.g. physiological, safety, love,
and esteem) and growth needs (self-actualization).
The deficiency, or
basic needs are said to motivate people when they are unmet. Also, the need to
fulfil such needs will become stronger the longer the duration they are denied.
For example, the longer a person goes without food the more hungry they will
become.
One must satisfy lower
level basic needs before progressing on to meet higher level growth needs.
Once these needs have been reasonably satisfied, one may be able to
reach the highest level called self-actualization.
Every person is capable
and has the desire to move up the hierarchy toward a level of
self-actualization. Unfortunately, progress is often disrupted by failure
to meet lower level needs. Life experiences including divorce and loss of job
may cause an individual to fluctuate between levels of he hierarchy.
Maslow noted only one
in a hundred people become fully self-actualized because our society rewards
motivation primarily based on esteem, love and other social needs.
1. Biological and
Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep.
2. Safety needs -
protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, freedom from
fear.
3. Social Needs -
belongingness, affection and love, - from work group, family, friends, romantic
relationships.
4. Esteem needs -
achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, self-respect,
respect from others.
5. Self-Actualization
needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth
and peak experiences.
Maslow posited that
human needs are arranged in a hierarchy:
'It is quite true that
man lives by bread alone — when there is no bread. But what happens to man’s
desires when there is plenty of bread and when his belly is chronically filled?
At once other (and
“higher”) needs emerge and these, rather than physiological hungers, dominate
the organism. And when these in turn are satisfied, again new (and still
“higher”) needs emerge and so on. This is what we mean by saying that the basic
human needs are organized into a hierarchy of relative prepotency'
It is important to note
that Maslow's (1943, 1954) five stage model has been expanded to include
cognitive and aesthetic needs and later transcendence needs .
Changes to the original
five-stage model are highlighted and include a seven-stage model and a
eight-stage model, both developed during the 1960's and 1970s.
1. Biological and
Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc.
2. Safety needs -
protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc.
3. Social Needs -
Belongingness and Love, - work group, family, affection, relationships, etc.
4. Esteem needs -
self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige,
managerial responsibility, etc.
5. Cognitive needs -
knowledge, meaning, etc.
6. Aesthetic needs -
appreciation and search for beauty, balance, form, etc.
7. Self-Actualization
needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth
and peak experiences.
8. Transcendence needs
- helping others to achieve self actualization.
Instead of focusing on psychopathology and
what goes wrong with people, Maslow (1943) formulated a more positive account
of human behavior which focused on what goes right. He was interested in human
potential, and how we fulfill that potential.
Psychologist Abraham
Maslow (1943, 1954) stated that human motivation is based on people seeking
fulfillment and change through personal growth. Self-actualized people as those
who were fulfilled and doing all they were capable of.
The growth of
self-actualization (Maslow, 1962) refers to the need for personal growth that
is present throughout a person’s life. For Maslow, a person is always
“becoming” and never remains static in these terms. In self-actualization
a person comes to find a meaning to life that is important to them.
As each person is unique
the motivation for self-actualization leads people in different directions
(Kenrick et al., 2010). For some people self-actualization can be achieved
through creating works of art or literature, for others through sport, in the
classroom, or within a corporate setting.
It is important to note
that self-actualization is a continual process of becoming rather than a
perfect state one reaches of a 'happy ever after' (Hoffman, 1988).
'It refers to the
person’s desire for self-fulfillment, namely, to the tendency for him to become
actualized in what he is potentially.
The specific form that
these needs will take will of course vary greatly from person to person. In one
individual it may take the form of the desire to be an ideal mother, in another
it may be expressed athletically, and in still another it may be expressed in
painting pictures or in inventions'.
Although we are all,
theoretically, capable of self-actualizing, most of us will not do so, or only
to a limited degree. Maslow (1970) estimated that only two percent of people
will reach the state of self actualization. He was particularly interested in
the characteristics of people whom he considered to have achieved their
potential as persons.
By studying 18 people
he considered to be self-actualized (including Abraham Lincoln and Albert
Einstein) Maslow (1970) identified 15 characteristics of a self-actualized
person.
Characteristics of
self-actualizers:
1. They perceive
reality efficiently and can tolerate uncertainty; 2. Accept themselves and others for what they are;
3. Spontaneous in thought and action; 4. Problem-centered (not self-centered);
5. Unusual sense of
humor; 6. Able to look at life
objectively; 7. Highly creative;
8. Resistant to
enculturation, but not purposely unconventional; 9. Concerned for the welfare of humanity; 10. Capable of deep appreciation of basic life-experience;
11. Establish deep satisfying interpersonal
relationships with a few people; 12. Peak
experiences; 13. Need for privacy;
14. Democratic attitudes; 15. Strong moral/ethical standards.
Behavior leading to
self-actualization:
(a) Experiencing life
like a child, with full absorption and concentration;
(b) Trying new things
instead of sticking to safe paths;
(c) Listening to your
own feelings in evaluating experiences instead of the voice of tradition,
authority or the majority;
(d) Avoiding pretense
('game playing') and being honest;
(e) Being prepared to
be unpopular if your views do not coincide with those of the majority;
(f) Taking
responsibility and working hard;
(g) Trying to identify
your defenses and having the courage to give them up.
The characteristics of
self-actualizers and the behaviors leading to self-actualization are shown in
the list above. Although people achieve self-actualization in their own
unique way, they tend to share certain characteristics. However,
self-actualization is a matter of degree, 'There are no perfect human beings' .
It is not necessary to
display all 15 characteristics to become self-actualized, and not only
self-actualized people will display them. Maslow did not equate
self-actualization with perfection. Self-actualization merely involves
achieving ones potential. Thus someone can be silly, wasteful, vain and
impolite, and still self-actualize. Less than two percent of the
population achieve self-actualization.
Maslow's (1968)
hierarchy of needs theory has made a major contribution to teaching and
classroom management in schools. Rather than reducing behavior to a response in the environment,
Maslow (1970a) adopts a holistic approach to education and learning. Maslow looks
at the entire physical, emotional, social, and intellectual qualities of an
individual and how they impact on behavior.
Applications of
Maslow's hierarchy theory to the work of the classroom teacher are obvious.
Before a student's cognitive needs can be met they must first fulfil their
basic physiological needs. For example a tired and hungry student will find it
difficult to focus on learning. Students need to feel emotionally and
physically safe and accepted within the classroom to progress and reach their
full potential.
Maslow suggests
students must be shown that they are valued and respected in the classroom and
the teacher should create a supportive environment. Students with a low self-esteem will not progress
academically at an optimum rate until their self-esteem is strengthened.
The most significant
limitation of Maslow's theory concerns his methodology. Maslow formulated the
characteristics of self-actualized individuals from undertaking a qualitative
method called biographical analysis.
He looked at the
biographies and writings of 18 people he identified as being
self-actualized. From these sources he developed a list of qualities that
seemed characteristic of this specific group of people, as opposed to humanity
in general.
From a scientific perspective
there are numerous problems with this particular approach. First, it
could be argued that biographical analysis as a method is extremely subjective
as it is based entirely on the opinion of the researcher. Personal
opinion is always prone to bias, which reduces the validity of any data
obtained. Therefore Maslow's operational definition of self-actualization must
not be blindly accepted as scientific fact.
Furthermore, Maslow's
biographical analysis focused on a biased sample of self-actualized
individuals, prominently limited to highly educated white males (such as Thomas
Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln, Albert Einstein, William James, Aldous Huxley,
Gandhi, Beethoven).
Although Maslow (1970)
did study self-actualized females, such as Eleanor Roosevelt and Mother Teresa,
they comprised a small proportion of his sample. This makes it difficult to
generalize his theory to females and individuals from lower social classes or
different ethnicity. Thus questioning the population validity of Maslow's
findings.
Furthermore, it is
extremely difficult to empirically test Maslow's concept of self-actualization
in a way that causal relationships can be established.
Another criticism
concerns Maslow's assumption that the lower needs must be satisfied before a
person can achieve their potential and self-actualize. This is not always
the case, and therefore Maslow's hierarchy of needs in some aspects has been falsified.
Through examining
cultures in which large numbers of people live in poverty (such as India) it is
clear that people are still capable of higher order needs such as love and
belongingness. However, this should not occur, as according to Maslow,
people who have difficulty achieving very basic physiological needs (such as
food, shelter etc.) are not capable of meeting higher growth needs.
Also, many creative
people, such as authors and artists (e.g. Rembrandt and Van Gough) lived in
poverty throughout their lifetime, yet it could be argued that they achieved
self-actualization.
Kenrick, D. T.,
Neuberg, S. L., Griskevicius, V., Becker, D. V., & Schaller, M. (2010).
Goal-Driven Cognition and Functional Behavior The Fundamental-Motives
Framework. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(1), 63-67.
Maslow, A. H. (1943). A Theory of Human Motivation.
Psychological Review, 50(4), 370-96.
END
BY ROSE N. WANJALA
HANDOUT
SIX
HUMAN MOTIVATION THEORY 2. Douglas McGregor's XY
Theory, managing an X Theory boss
Douglas McGregor, an
American social psychologist, proposed his famous X-Y theory in his 1960 book
'The Human Side Of Enterprise'. Theory x and theory y are still referred to
commonly in the field of management and motivation, and whilst more recent
studies have questioned the rigidity of the model, Mcgregor's X-Y Theory
remains a valid basic principle from which to develop positive management style
and techniques. McGregor's XY Theory remains central to organizational
development, and to improving organizational culture.
McGregor's X-Y
theory is a salutary and simple reminder of the natural rules for managing
people, which under the pressure of day-to-day business are all too easily
forgotten.
McGregor's ideas
suggest that there are two fundamental approaches to managing people. Many
managers tend towards theory x, and generally get poor results. Enlightened
managers use theory y, which produces better performance and results, and
allows people to grow and develop.
McGregor's ideas
significantly relate to modern understanding of the
Psychological Contract, which provides many ways to appreciate the
unhelpful nature of X-Theory leadership, and the useful constructive beneficial
nature of Y-Theory leadership.
Theory x
('authoritarian management' style)
- The average person dislikes work and will
avoid it he/she can.
- Therefore most people must be forced with
the threat of punishment to work towards organizational objectives.
- The average person prefers to be directed;
to avoid responsibility; is relatively unambitious, and wants security
above all else.
Theory y ('participative
management' style)
- Effort in work is as natural as work and
play.
- People will apply self-control and
self-direction in the pursuit of organisational objectives, without
external control or the threat of punishment.
- Commitment to objectives is a function of
rewards associated with their achievement.
- People usually accept and often seek
responsibility.
- The capacity to use a high degree of
imagination, ingenuity and creativity in solving organisational problems
is widely, not narrowly, distributed in the population.
- In industry the intellectual potential of
the average person is only partly utilised.
Characteristics
of the x theory manager
Perhaps the most
noticeable aspects of McGregor's XY Theory - and the easiest to illustrate -
are found in the behaviours of autocratic managers and organizations which use
autocratic management styles.
What are the
characteristics of a Theory X manager? Typically some, most or all of these:
- results-driven and deadline-driven, to the
exclusion of everything else;intolerant
- issues deadlines and ultimatums ;distant
and detached ;aloof and arrogant ;elitist
- short temper ;shouts ;issues instructions,
directions, edicts ;issues threats to make people follow instructions
;demands, never asks ;does not participate ;does not team-build
;unconcerned about staff welfare, or morale ;proud, sometimes to the point
of self-destruction ;one-way communicator;poor listener ;fundamentally
insecure and possibly neurotic ;anti-social
- vengeful and recriminatory;does not thank or
praise;withholds rewards, and suppresses pay and remunerations levels;
scrutinises expenditure to the point of false economy;seeks culprits for
failures or shortfalls;seeks to apportion blame instead of focusing on
learning from the experience and preventing recurrence;does not invite or
welcome suggestions ;takes criticism badly and likely to retaliate if from
below or peer group ;poor at proper delegating - but believes they
delegate well ;thinks giving orders is delegating ;holds on to
responsibility but shifts accountability to subordinates ; relatively
unconcerned with investing in anything to gain future improvements
;unhappy
How to
manage upwards - managing your X theory boss
Working for an X
theory boss isn't easy - some extreme X theory managers make extremely
unpleasant managers, but there are ways of managing these people upwards.
Avoiding confrontation (unless you are genuinely being bullied, which is a
different matter) and delivering results are the key tactics.
- Theory X managers (or indeed theory Y
managers displaying theory X behaviour) are primarily results oriented -
so orientate your your own discussions and dealings with them around
results - ie what you can deliver and when.
- Theory X managers are facts and figures
oriented - so cut out the incidentals, be able to measure and substantiate
anything you say and do for them, especially reporting on results and
activities.
- Theory X managers generally don't
understand or have an interest in the human issues, so don't try to appeal
to their sense of humanity or morality. Set your own objectives to meet
their organisational aims and agree these with the managers; be seen to be
self-starting, self-motivating, self-disciplined and well-organised - the
more the X theory manager sees you are managing yourself and producing
results, the less they'll feel the need to do it for you.
- Always deliver your commitments and
promises. If you are given an unrealistic task and/or deadline state the
reasons why it's not realistic, but be very sure of your ground, don't be
negative; be constructive as to how the overall aim can be achieved in a
way that you know you can deliver.
- Stand up for yourself, but constructively
- avoid confrontation. Never threaten or go over their heads if you are
dissatisfied or you'll be in big trouble afterwards and life will be a lot
more difficult.
- If an X theory boss tells you how to do
things in ways that are not comfortable or right for you, then don't
questioning the process, simply confirm the end-result that is required,
and check that it's okay to 'streamline the process' or 'get things done
more efficiently' if the chance arises - they'll normally agree to this,
which effectively gives you control over the 'how', provided you deliver
the 'what' and 'when'.
And this is really
the essence of managing upwards X theory managers - focus and get agreement on
the results and deadlines - if you consistently deliver, you'll increasingly be
given more leeway on how you go about the tasks, which amounts to more freedom.
Be aware also that many X theory managers are forced to be X theory by the
short-term demands of the organisation and their own superiors - an X theory
manager is usually someone with their own problems, so try not to give them any
more.
Theory z - william ouchi
First things first -
Theory Z is not a Mcgregor idea and as such is not Mcgregor's extension of his
XY theory.
Theory Z was
developed by not by Mcgregor, but by William Ouchi, in his book 1981 'Theory Z:
How American management can Meet the Japanese Challenge'. William Ouchi is
professor of management at UCLA, Los Angeles, and a board member of several
large US organisations.
Theory Z is often
referred to as the 'Japanese' management style, which is essentially what it
is. It's interesting that Ouchi chose to name his model 'Theory Z', which apart
from anything else tends to give the impression that it's a Mcgregor idea. One
wonders if the idea was not considered strong enough to stand alone with a
completely new name... Nevertheless, Theory Z essentially advocates a
combination of all that's best about theory Y and modern Japanese management,
which places a large amount of freedom and trust with workers, and assumes that
workers have a strong loyalty and interest in team-working and the
organisation.
Theory Z also places
more reliance on the attitude and responsibilities of the workers, whereas
Mcgregor's XY theory is mainly focused on management and motivation from the
manager's and organisation's perspective. There is no doubt that Ouchi's Theory
Z model offers excellent ideas, albeit it lacking the simple elegance of
Mcgregor's model, which let's face it, thousands of organisations and managers
around the world have still yet to embrace. For this reason, Theory Z may for
some be like trying to manage the kitchen at the Ritz before mastering the
ability to cook a decent fried breakfast.
Theory X and Theory Y
Understanding
Team Member Motivation
What motivates
employees to go to work each morning?
Many people get
great satisfaction from their work and take great pride in it; Others may view
it as a burden, and simply work to survive.
This question of
motivation has been studied by management theorists and social psychologists
for decades, in attempts to identify successful approaches to management.
Social psychologist
Douglas McGregor of MIT expounded two contrasting theories on human motivation
and management in the 1960s: The X Theory and the Y Theory. McGregor promoted
Theory Y as the basis of good management practice, pioneering the argument that
workers are not merely cogs in the company machinery, as Theory X-Type
organizations seemed to believe.
The theories look at
how a manager's perceptions of what motivates his or her team members affects
the way he or she behaves. By understanding how your assumptions about
employees’ motivation can influence your management style, you can adapt your
approach appropriately, and so manage people more effectively.
Understanding
the Theories
Your management
style is strongly influenced by your beliefs and assumptions about what
motivates members of your team: If you believe that team members dislike work,
you will tend towards an authoritarian style of management; On the other hand,
if you assume that employees take pride in doing a good job, you will tend to
adopt a more participative style.
Theory X
Theory X assumes
that employees are naturally unmotivated and dislike working, and this
encourages an authoritarian style of management. According to this view,
management must actively intervene to get things done. This style of management
assumes that workers:
- Dislike working.
- Avoid responsibility and need to be
directed.
- Have to be controlled, forced, and
threatened to deliver what's needed.
- Need to be supervised at every step, with
controls put in place.
- Need to be enticed to produce results;
otherwise they have no ambition or incentive to work.
X-Type organizations
tend to be top heavy, with managers and supervisors required at every step to
control workers. There is little delegation of authority and control remains
firmly centralized.
McGregor recognized
that X-Type workers are in fact usually the minority, and yet in mass
organizations, such as large scale production environment, X Theory management
may be required and can be unavoidable.
Theory Y
Theory Y expounds a
participative style of management that is de-centralized. It assumes that
employees are happy to work, are self-motivated and creative, and enjoy working
with greater responsibility. It assumes that workers:
- Take responsibility and are motivated to
fulfill the goals they are given.
- Seek and accept responsibility and do not
need much direction.
- Consider work as a natural part of life
and solve work problems imaginatively.
This more
participative management style tends to be more widely applicable. In Y-Type
organizations, people at lower levels of the organization are involved in
decision making and have more responsibility.
Comparing
Theory X and Theory Y
·
Motivation
Theory
X assumes that people dislike work; they want to avoid it and do not want to
take responsibility. Theory Y assumes that people are self-motivated, and
thrive on responsibility.
·
Management Style
and Control
In
a Theory X organization, management is authoritarian, and centralized control
is retained, whilst in Theory Y, the management style is participative:
Management involves employees in decision making, but retains power to
implement decisions.
·
Work Organization
Theory
X employees tend to have specialized and often repetitive work. In Theory Y,
the work tends to be organized around wider areas of skill or knowledge;
Employees are also encouraged to develop expertise and make suggestions and
improvements.
·
Rewards and
Appraisals
Theory
X organizations work on a ‘carrot and stick’ basis, and performance appraisal
is part of the overall mechanisms of control and remuneration. In Theory Y
organizations, appraisal is also regular and important, but is usually a separate
mechanism from organizational controls. Theory Y organizations also give
employees frequent opportunities for promotion.
·
Application
Although
Theory X management style is widely accepted as inferior to others, it has its
place in large scale production operation and unskilled production-line work.
Many of the principles of Theory Y are widely adopted by types of organization
that value and encourage participation. Theory Y-style management is suited to
knowledge work and professional services. Professional service organizations
naturally evolve Theory Y-type practices by the nature of their work; Even
highly structure knowledge work, such as call center operations, can benefits
from Theory Y principles to encourage knowledge sharing and continuous
improvement.
Tip 1:
Enough theory. Which
approach do you prefer?
Do you work most
effectively when your boss controls every part of everything you do? Or would
this drive you mad, so that you'd just do what he or she wanted (and nothing
more), look for another job, and then leave? Or would you prefer a boss who
helps you to do your best, increasingly trusts your judgment, allows you to use
your creativity, and step-by-step gives you more control over your job?
Would you work more
effectively for a Theory X or Theory Y manager?
Learn from this! As
it is for you, it will be for many of the members of your team!
Tip 2:
That said, different
members of your own team may have different attitudes. Many may thrive on
Theory Y management, while others may need Theory X management. Still others
may benefit from an altogether different approach.
Mix and match
appropriately.
Using the
Theories
Understanding your
assumptions about employees motivation can help your learn to manage more
effectively. In order to understand McGregor’s theories in more detail, we
suggest the following reading:
- Douglas McGregor Revisited
Published in 2000, this book looks at McGregor’s time-tested thinking on human motivation, and shows how his theories apply in today’s organizations.
- See more at:
http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newLDR_74.htm#sthash.nT5HRNBt.dpuf
Motivation Theory - McGregor
McGregor
Theory X & Theory Y
Introduction
McGregor developed
two theories of human behaviour at work: Theory and X and Theory Y.
He did not imply
that workers would be one type or the other. Rather, he saw the two theories as
two extremes - with a whole spectrum of possible behaviours in between.
Theory X
workers could be described as follows:
- Individuals who
dislike work and avoid it where possible
- Individuals who
lack ambition, dislike responsibility and prefer to be led
- Individuals who
desire security
The management
implications for Theory X workers were that, to achieve organisational
objectives, a business would need to impose a management system of coercion,
control and punishment.
Theory Y workers were characterised by McGregor as:
-
Consider effort at work as just like rest or play
-
Ordinary people who do not dislike work. Depending on the working conditions,
work could be considered a source of satisfaction or punishment
-
Individuals who seek responsibility (if they are motivated0
The
management implications for Theory X workers are that, to achieve
organisational objectives, rewards of varying kinds are likely to be the most
popular motivator. The challenge for management with Theory Y workers is to create
a working environment (or culture) where workers can show and develop their
creativity.
What do people want
from their jobs?
Do they want just a
higher salary? Or do they want security, good relationships with co-workers,
opportunities for growth and advancement – or something else altogether?
This is an important
question, because it's at the root of motivation, the art of engaging with
members of your team in such a way that they give their very best performance.
The psychologist
Fredrick Herzberg asked the same question in the 1950s and 60s as a means of
understanding employee satisfaction. He set out to determine the effect of
attitude on motivation, by asking people to describe situations where they felt
really good, and really bad, about their jobs. What he found was that people
who felt good about their jobs gave very different responses from the people
who felt bad.
These results form
the basis of Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory (sometimes known as
Herzberg's Two Factor Theory.) Published in his famous article "One More
Time: How do You Motivate Employees", the conclusions he drew were
extraordinarily influential, and still form the bedrock of good motivational
practice nearly half a century later.
Motivation-Hygiene
Theory
Herzberg's findings
revealed that certain characteristics of a job are consistently related to job
satisfaction, while different factors are associated with job dissatisfaction.
These are:
|
Factors for Satisfaction
|
Factors for Dissatisfaction
|
|
Achievement
Recognition
The work itself
Responsibility
Advancement
Growth
|
Company policies
Supervision
Relationship with
supervisor and peers
Work conditions
Salary
Status
Security
|
The conclusion he
drew is that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are not opposites.
- The opposite of Satisfaction
is No Satisfaction.
- The opposite of Dissatisfaction
is No Dissatisfaction.
Remedying the causes
of dissatisfaction will not create satisfaction. Nor will adding the factors of
job satisfaction eliminate job dissatisfaction. If you have a hostile work
environment, giving someone a promotion will not make him or her satisfied. If
you create a healthy work environment but do not provide members of your team
with any of the satisfaction factors, the work they're doing will still not be
satisfying.
According to
Herzberg, the factors leading to job satisfaction are "separate and
distinct from those that lead to job dissatisfaction." Therefore, if you
set about eliminating dissatisfying job factors you may create peace, but not
necessarily enhance performance. This placates your workforce instead of
actually motivating them to improve performance.
The characteristics
associated with job dissatisfaction are called hygiene factors. When these have
been adequately addressed, people will not be dissatisfied nor will they be
satisfied. If you want to motivate your team, you then have to focus on
satisfaction factors like achievement, recognition, and responsibility.
Note:
Despite its wide
acceptance, Herzberg's theory has its detractors. Some say its methodology does
not address the notion that when things are going well people tend to look at
the things they enjoy about their job. When things are going badly, however,
they tend to blame external factors.
Another common
criticism is the fact that the theory assumes a strong correlation between job
satisfaction and productivity. Herzberg's methodology did not address this
relationship, therefore this assumption needs to be correct for his findings to
have practical relevance.
To apply Herzberg's
theory, you need to adopt a two stage process to motivate people. Firstly, you
need eliminate the dissatisfactions they're experiencing and, secondly, you
need to help them find satisfaction.
Step One:
Eliminate Job Dissatisfaction
Herzberg called the
causes of dissatisfaction "hygiene factors". To get rid of them, you
need to:
- Fix poor and obstructive company policies.
- Provide effective, supportive and
non-intrusive supervision.
- Create and support a culture of respect
and dignity for all team members.
- Ensure that wages are competitive.
- Build job status by providing meaningful
work for all positions.
- Provide job security.
All of these actions
help you eliminate job dissatisfaction in your organization. And there's no
point trying to motivate people until these issues are out of the way!
You can't stop
there, though. Remember, just because someone is not dissatisfied, it doesn't
mean he or she is satisfied either! Now you have to turn your attention to
building job satisfaction.
Step Two:
Create Conditions for Job Satisfaction
To create
satisfaction, Herzberg says you need to address the motivating factors
associated with work. He called this "job enrichment". His premise
was that every job should be examined to determine how it could be made better
and more satisfying to the person doing the work. Things to consider include:
- Providing opportunities for achievement.
- Recognizing workers' contributions.
- Creating work that is rewarding and that
matches the skills and abilities of the worker.
- Giving as much responsibility to each team
member as possible.
- Providing opportunities to advance in the
company through internal promotions.
- Offering training and development
opportunities, so that people can pursue the positions they want within
the company.
Tip 1:
Here we're
approaching the subject of motivation in a very general way. In reality, you'll
need "different strokes for different folks" – in other words,
different people will perceive different issues, and will be motivated by
different things. Make sure you talk with your people regularly on a one-to-one
basis to find out what matters to them.
Tip 2:
Herzberg's theory is
largely responsible for the practice of allowing people greater responsibility
for planning and controlling their work, as a means of increasing motivation
and satisfaction. To learn more about this, see the Mind Tools article on job enrichment .
Key
Points
The relationship
between motivation and job satisfaction is not overly complex. The problem is
that many employers look at the hygiene factors as ways to motivate when in
fact, beyond the very short term, they do very little to motivate.
Perhaps managers
like to use this approach because they think people are more financially
motivated than, perhaps, they are, or perhaps it just takes less management
effort to raise wages than it does to reevaluate company policy, and redesign
jobs for maximum satisfaction.
When you're seeking
to motivate people, firstly get rid of the things that are annoying them about
the company and the workplace. Make sure they're treated fairly, and with
respect.
Once you've done
this, look for ways in which you can help people grow within their jobs, give
them opportunities for achievement, and praise that achievement wherever you
find it.
Apply
This to Your Life
If you lead a team,
take a little time with each of the members of your team to check that they're
happy, that they think they're being fairly and respectfully treated, and that
they're not being affected by unnecessary bureaucracy.
You may be horrified
by what you find once you start probing (bureaucracy, in particular, has a way
of spreading), however you may be able to improve things quickly if you put
your mind to it.
Then find out what
they want from their jobs, do what you can to give this to them, and help them
grow as individuals.
If you do this
systematically, you'll be amazed by the impact this has on motivation!
To explore how you
can apply this at work, take our Bite-Sized Training session on Motivating
Your Team.
Herzberg’s
Theory of Motivation
4factors and is often referred to as a ‘two need
system’ (Herzberg, Mausner & Snyderman, 1959).These two separate ‘needs’
are the need to avoid unpleasantness and discomfort and, at the other end
of the motivational scale, the need for personal development (Clark, 1992). A
shortage of thefactors that positively encourage employees (the motivating
factors) will cause employees tofocus on other, non-job related ‘hygiene’
factors (Herzberg, Mausner & Snyderman, 1959).As reported above, in his
findings Herzberg split his factors of motivation into two categories called
Hygiene factors and Motivation factors (Herzberg, 1968). The Hygiene factorscan
de-motivate or cause dissatisfaction if they are not present, but do not very
often create satisfaction when they are present.
However, Motivation factors do motivate or createsatisfaction
and are rarely the cause of dissatisfaction
(Herzberg,
Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959).Herzberg’s (1959) Motivation-Hygiene Theory
established how job satisfaction and dissatisfaction operate separately from
one another. The Motivation-Hygiene Theory differentiates among motivating and
maintenance influences in the workplace (Herzberg,Mausner, & Snyderman,
1959). He suggested that individuals are encouraged by motivators more than
maintenance factors. Motivators include a stimulating vocation, accountability,
and providing fulfillment from the profession,
such as awards, accomplishment, or individual
development. On the other hand, maintenance influences include position,
employment, income,and benefits, but these influences do not provide
affirmative satisfaction, though dissatisfaction occurs from their deficiency
(Hackman & Oldham, 1976). The most important part of the theory of
motivation presented by Herzberg is that the main motivating factors are not in
the environment but in the intrinsic value and satisfaction gained from the job
itself (Herzberg,1968). It follows therefore that to motivate an individual, a
job itself must be challenging, have scope for enrichment and be of interest to
the jobholder (Herzberg, Mausner & Snyderman,
Herzberg’s
Theory of Motivation
51959). Motivators (sometimes called
‘satisfiers’) are those factors directly concerned with the
satisfaction gained from a job, such as: the sense of achievement and the
intrinsic value obtained from the job itself , the level of recognition by both
colleagues and management , the level of responsibility opportunities for
advancement and the status provided (Herzberg, 1968).Motivators or satisfiers
lead to satisfaction because of the need for growth and a sense of
self-achievement (Boltes, Lippke, & Gregory, 1995). A lack of motivators
leads to over-concentration on hygiene factors, which are those negative
factors which can be seen and therefore form the basis of complaint and concern
(Ezell, 2003). Hygiene factors (often referred to as maintenance factors) lead
to dissatisfaction with a job because of the need to avoid anxiety or stress
(Bartholomew & Smith, 1990). Anxiety and stresses are referred to as
hygiene factors because they can be avoided or prevented by the use of
‘hygienic’ methods. The important fact to remember is that attention to these
hygiene factors prevents dissatisfaction but does not necessarily provide
positive motivation (Herzberg, 1968). Hygiene factors are also often referred
to as ‘dissatisfiers’ (Herzberg, 1968). They are concerned with factors associated
with the job itself but are not directly a part of it. Typically, this is
salary, although other factors which will often act as dissatisfiers include:
perceived differences with others, job security, working conditions, the
quality of management, organizational policy, administration, interpersonal
relations (Berman, Bowman, West & Van Wart, 2006). The dissatisfiers are
hygiene factors in the sense that they are maintenance factors required to
avoid dissatisfaction and stop workers unhappiness, but do not create satisfaction
in themselves. They can be avoided by using
‘hygienic’ methods to prevent them (Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman,
1959).Herzberg’s theory recognizes the intrinsic satisfaction that can be
obtained from the work itself. It draws attention to job design and makes
managers aware that problems of motivation
Herzberg’s Theory of Motivation 6may not necessarily be directly
associated with the work. Problems can often be external to the job
(Herzberg, 1968). Managers’ understanding that factors which de-motivate
workers may often be related to matters other than the work itself, can lead to
improved motivation, greater job satisfaction and improved
organizational performance by the entire workforce (Boltes,Lippke &
Gregory, 1995). Understanding individual goals, coupled with wider skills and
abilities, can lead to greater opportunities (Boltes, Lippke & Gregory,
1995). Individuals are seen as valuable to organizations and can acquire new
skills useful in the future. Improving skills, opportunities and increasing
employee knowledge will, in the longer term, increase the value of an
organization’s human assets. Most importantly, it can lead to greater staff
commitment, understanding and loyalty (Castillo& Cano, 2004).
Herzberg
sustained that Man has two sets of needs; one as an animal to avoid pain, and
two as a human being to grow psychologically. He illustrated this also through
Biblical example: Adam after his expulsion from Eden having the need for food,
warmth, shelter, guidance, safety,etc., those represent the ‘hygiene’ needs;
and Abraham, capable and achieving great things through self-development which
represents the ‘motivational’ needs. Herzberg identified a specific category
within the study responses which he called ‘possibility of growth’. This arose
in relatively few cases within the study and was not considered a major factor
by Herzberg. Where referring to ‘growth’ or ‘personal growth’ in terms of
Herzberg's primary motivators, ‘growth’ should be seen as an aspect of
advancement, and not confused with the different matter of ‘possibility of
growth’ (Herzberg, 1968).As question about the role of money commonly arises
when considering Herzberg’s research and theories, so it’s
appropriate to include it here. At lower levels of Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs, such as physiological needs, he considered money as a
motivator;
Herzberg’s Theory of Motivation 7nevertheless it tends to have a
motivating effect on staff that lasts only for a short period --in accordance
with Herzberg’s two-factor model of motivation. At higher levels of the
hierarchy, praise, respect, recognition, empowerment and a sense of
belonging are far more powerful motivators than money (Bowen
& Radhakrishna, 1991). Herzberg addressed money particularly--referring specifically to ‘salary’ in his study and analysis.
Herzberg acknowledged the complexity of the salary issue (money, earnings,
etc), and concluded that money is not a motivator in the way that the primary
motivators are, such as achievement and recognition. Herzberg said about
‘salary’: “Salary appears as frequently in the high sequences (sequences are
events causing high or low attitude feelings recalled by interviewees in the
study) as it does in the low sequences... however... it is more detectable in
the lows as factors leading to dissatisfaction, salary is found almost three
times as often in the long-range as in the short-range attitude changes...”
Salary can influence both categories (High or low) (Herzberg, Mausner,
&Snyderman, 1959).In conclusion, Herzberg theorized that employees must be
motivated to experience job satisfaction but that unacceptable working
conditions can only result in a lack of satisfaction. The data analyzed for the
study reported here indicate Extension agents left the organization
for both reasons: lack of job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction
(Herzberg, 1968). The presence of sufficient maintenance factors prevents employment discontent, whereas
adequate motivators may direct occupational contentment (Mausner, &
Snyderman, 1959). When salary occurred as a factor in the lows (causes of
dissatisfaction) it revolved around the unfairness of the wage system within
the organization... It was the system of salary administration that was being
described... it also concerned an advancement that was not accompanied by a
salary increase... In contrast to this, salary was mentioned in the high
stories (events causing satisfaction) as something that
Herzberg’s Theory of Motivation 8went along with a person’s achievement
on the job. It was a form of recognition; job satisfaction meant more than
money; it meant a job well done; it meant that the individual was progressing
in his work (Herzberg, 1968). Viewed within the context of the sequences of
events, salary as a factor belongs more in the group that defines the job
situation and is primarily a dissatisfier. This group has a tendency to be
categorized as victims by productivity (Berman, Bowman, West &Van Wart,
2006). Many people argue nevertheless that money is a primary motivator. For
most people money is not a motivator - despite what they might think and
say. Over the years there are criticisms that have arisen of Herzberg such as
his sample of employees was not representative of all workers, but further
studies have tended to support his findings. In addition some critics have declared that it is natural for people to take credit for satisfaction, but to blame dissatisfaction on external factors
(Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman,1959). Those same critics argued that to
individual, theories of motivation cannot realistically apply to each single
employee; however; they are useful for identifying the main overall ways in
which people are motivated. Herzberg and his findings have been extremely influential in developments associated with the
field of job design and methods of management to provide job satisfaction and
motivation.
•
Emphasizes human behavior and individual values rather than organizational structures and organizational values
Organizational
Behavior Levels of Analysis
•
Individual Behavior;• Group Functioning;• Organizational Operations
•
Community Considerations;•Society
•
Individual Behavior
–
Problems with motivation;– Failure of employees to communicate with the
Public;–
Employees who fail to understand the broader purpose of the organization—the
mission and values of the organization and unit
• Group
level;– Do existing groups function effectively?;– Do people feel like part of
a team?;– Do team members understand group process and have leadership skills?
•
Organization Level
– Does
the organization have a structure to accomplish
its goals?
– Are
management systems in place (e.g. goal setting
and performance appraisal).;– Is there a strategic plan?
– Are
resources tracked and allocated to the areas of
highest need?
– Is
organizational communication clear, policies documented and disseminated?;– Is
hiring and training adequate?
– Is the
organization receiving adequate funding?
– Is
their a relationship with key funding representatives?
– How
does society value the work of the organization?
– How
can it be demonstrated to the public that important work is being done by the
organization?
Aspects
of Individual and Group
Behavior
Related to Organizations
•
Motivating employees;• Being and effective team member;• Leading and inspiring
others;• Communicating effectively with others –inside and outside of the
organization;• Making effective decisions;• Using power and politics
constructively ;and ethically;• Creating and securing commitment to shared
values;• Managing conflict productively;• Using diversity to enhance
organizational performance;• Helping people become more innovative
and
creative
• That
Human behavior is purposeful – goal directed;
• Human
behavior is not random – it is caused – reasons have reasons;
•
Behavior can be changed through learning
• People
should be valued
• Public
service is about serving others
END
BY
WANJALA
HANDOUT SEVEN
TYPOLOGIES(Types) of Leadership
Most common
Leadership Types are:
- Autocratic
leadership.
-
Bureaucratic leadership.
-
Charismatic leadership.
- Democratic
leadership or participative leadership.
-
Laissez-faire leadership.
-
People-oriented leadership or relations-oriented leadership.
- Servant
leadership.
-
Task-oriented leadership.
-
Transactional leadership.
-
Transformational leadership.
Autocratic Leadership
Autocratic
leadership is an extreme form of transactional leadership, where a leader
exerts high levels of power over his or her employees or team members. People
within the team are given few opportunities for making suggestions, even if
these would be in the team's or organization's interest.
Most
people tend to resent being treated like this. Because of this, autocratic
leadership usually leads to high levels of absenteeism and staff turnover.
Also, the team's output does not benefit from the creativity and experience of
all team members, so many of the benefits of teamwork are lost.
For
some routine and unskilled jobs, however, this style can remain effective where
the advantages of control outweigh the disadvantages.
Bureaucratic Leadership
Bureaucratic
leaders "work by the book", ensuring that their staff follow
procedures exactly. This is a very appropriate style for work involving serious
safety risks (such as working with machinery, with toxic substances or at
heights) or where large sums of money are involved (such as cash-handling).
In
other situations, the inflexibility and high levels of control exerted can
demoralize staff, and can diminish the organizations ability to react to
changing external circumstances.
Charismatic Leadership
A
charismatic leadership style can appear similar to a transformational
leadership style, in that the leader injects huge doses of enthusiasm into his
or her team, and is very energetic in driving others forward.
However,
a charismatic leader can tend to believe more in him or herself than in their
team. This can create a risk that a project, or even an entire organization,
might collapse if the leader were to leave: In the eyes of their followers,
success is tied up with the presence of the charismatic leader. As such,
charismatic leadership carries great responsibility, and needs long-term
commitment from the leader.
Democratic Leadership or Participative
Leadership
Although a
democratic leader will make the final decision, he or she invites other members
of the team to contribute to the decision-making process. This not only
increases job satisfaction by involving employees or team members in what's going
on, but it also helps to develop people's skills. Employees and team members
feel in control of their own destiny, and so are motivated to work hard by more
than just a financial reward.
As
participation takes time, this style can lead to things happening more slowly
than an autocratic approach, but often the end result is better. It can be most
suitable where team working is essential, and quality is more important than
speed to market or productivity.
Laissez-Faire Leadership
This French
phrase means "let them do" and is used to describe a leader who
leaves his or her colleagues to get on with their work. It can be effective if
the leader monitors what is being achieved and communicates this back to his or
her team regularly. Most often, laissez-faire leadership works for teams in
which the individuals are very experienced and skilled self-starters.
Unfortunately, it can also refer to situations where managers are not exerting
sufficient control.
People-Oriented Leadership or
Relations-Oriented Leadership
This style
of leadership is the opposite of task-oriented leadership: the leader is
totally focused on organizing, supporting and developing the people in the
leader's team. A participative style, it tends to lead to good teamwork and
creative collaboration. However, taken to extremes, it can lead to failure to
achieve the team's goals. In practice, most leaders use both task-oriented and
people-oriented styles of leadership.
Servant Leadership
This term,
coined by Robert Greenleaf in the 1970s, describes a leader who is often not
formally recognized as such. When someone, at any level within an organization,
leads simply by virtue of meeting the needs of his or her team, he or she is
described as a "servant leader". In many ways, servant leadership is
a form of democratic leadership, as the whole team tends to be involved in
decision-making.
Supporters
of the servant leadership model suggest it is an important way ahead in a world
where values are increasingly important, in which servant leaders achieve power
on the basis of their values and ideals. Others believe that in competitive
leadership situations, people practicing servant leadership will often find
themselves left behind by leaders using other leadership styles.
Task-Oriented Leadership
A highly
task-oriented leader focuses only on getting the job done, and can be quite
autocratic. He or she will actively define the work and the roles required, put
structures in place, plan, organize and monitor. However, as task-oriented
leaders spare little thought for the well-being of their teams, this approach
can suffer many of the flaws of autocratic leadership, with difficulties in
motivating and retaining staff. Task-oriented leaders can benefit from an
understanding of the Blake-Mouton Managerial Grid, which can help them identify
specific areas for development that will help them involve people more.
Transactional Leadership
This style
of leadership starts with the premise that team members agree to obey their
leader totally when they take a job on: the transaction is (usually) that the
organization pays the team members, in return for their effort and compliance.
As such, the leader has the right to punish team members if their work doesn't
meet the pre-determined standard.
Team
members can do little to improve their job satisfaction under transactional
leadership. The leader could give team members some control of their
income/reward by using incentives that encourage even higher standards or
greater productivity. Alternatively a transactional leader could practice
"management by exception", whereby, rather than rewarding better
work, he or she would take corrective action if the required standards were not
met.
Transactional
leadership is really just a way of managing rather a true leadership style, as
the focus is on short-term tasks. It has serious limitations for
knowledge-based or creative work, but remains a common style in many
organizations.
Transformational Leadership
A person
with this leadership style is a true leader who inspires his or her team with a
shared vision of the future. Transformational leaders are highly visible, and
spend a lot of time communicating. They don't necessarily lead from the front,
as they tend to delegate responsibility amongst their teams. While their
enthusiasm is often infectious, they can need to be supported by "detail
people".
In
many organizations, both transactional and transformational leadership are
needed. The transactional leaders (or managers) ensure that routine work is
done reliably, while the transformational leaders look after initiatives that
add value.
The
transformational leadership style is the dominant leadership style taught in
the "How to Lead: Discover the Leader Within You" leadership program,
although we do recommend that other styles are brought as the situation
demands.
Using the Right Style: Situational
Leadership
While the
Transformation Leadership approach is often highly effective, there is no one
right way to lead or manage that suits all situations. To choose the most
effective approach for you, you must consider:
- The
skill levels and experience of the members of your team.
- The work involved (routine or new and creative).
- The organizational environment (stable or radically changing, conservative or adventurous).
- You own preferred or natural style.
- The work involved (routine or new and creative).
- The organizational environment (stable or radically changing, conservative or adventurous).
- You own preferred or natural style.
A good
leader will find him or herself switching instinctively between styles
according to the people and work they are dealing with. This is often referred
to as "situational leadership"
For
example, the manager of a small factory trains new machine operatives using a
bureaucratic style to ensure operatives know the procedures that achieve the
right standards of product quality and workplace safety. The same manager may
adopt a more participative style of leadership when working on production line
improvement with his or her team of supervisors.
5 Different Types of Leadership Styles
Laissez-Faire
A laissez-faire leader lacks direct supervision of employees and fails to
provide regular feedback to those under his supervision. Highly experienced and
trained employees requiring little supervision fall under the laissez-faire
leadership style. However, not all employees possess those characteristics.
This leadership style hinders the production of employees needing supervision.
The laissez-faire style produces no leadership or supervision efforts from
managers, which can lead to poor production, lack of control and increasing
costs.
Autocratic
The autocratic leadership style allows managers to make decisions alone
without the input of others. Managers possess total authority and impose their
will on employees. No one challenges the decisions of autocratic leaders.
Countries such as Cuba and North Korea operate under the autocratic leadership
style. This leadership style benefits employees who require close supervision.
Creative employees who thrive in group functions detest this leadership style.
Participative
Often called the democratic leadership style, participative leadership
values the input of team members and peers, but the responsibility of making
the final decision rests with the participative leader. Participative
leadership boosts employee morale because employees make contributions to the
decision-making process. It causes them to feel as if their opinions matter.
When a company needs to make changes within the organization, the participative
leadership style helps employees accept changes easily because they play a role
in the process. This style meets challenges when companies need to make a
decision in a short period.
Transactional
Managers using the transactional leadership style receive certain tasks to
perform and provide rewards or punishments to team members based on performance
results. Managers and team members set predetermined goals together, and
employees agree to follow the direction and leadership of the manager to
accomplish those goals. The manager possesses power to review results and train
or correct employees when team members fail to meet goals. Employees receive
rewards, such as bonuses, when they accomplish goals.
Transformational
The transformational leadership style depends on high levels of
communication from management to meet goals. Leaders motivate employees and
enhance productivity and efficiency through communication and high visibility.
This style of leadership requires the involvement of management to meet goals. Leaders
focus on the big picture within an organization and delegate smaller tasks to
the team to accomplish goals.
Handout Eight.
Conflict
Resolution:
Conflicts themselves can manifest at virtually any level in an organization. From the lower teams of the corporate structure to the highest parts of the executive ranks, differences of opinion can and do appear, mostly as a result of a disagreement on design or strategy or due to competing objectives. Because he/she is the de facto project leader, the project manager may find themselves in situations that will require intervention if a conflict between team members has arisen. Having some understanding of how to deal with these situations is an invaluable part of the project manager’s skill set. Why Do Conflicts Occur? As indicated, conflicts can manifest at any time during a project/programme cycle. They can in many cases also be the result of carry-over from other projects or initiatives within a company that involved similar members of the project team. While conflicts can be emotional in nature, in most cases and from a project manager perspective, they will be intertwined with the project itself and its deliverable. For the purposes of our analysis, conflicts can be itemized as follows:
In many cases, conflicts can often have their catalyst in specific environments that manifest within a company. While not always a primary factor, distribution of resources, roles and responsibilities, sharing and enjoyment of the benefits from resources and responsibilities, how things are organized, the culture of the company or the types of individuals interacting can all contribute to an environment that can cause conflicts to arise in more frequency. Additionally, the project manager may also be unwittingly contributing to an environment of conflict through their own actions, whether intentional or not. Being late for their own meetings, constantly changing the schedule or scope and being unresponsive to issues can cause seemingly trivial problems to fester and then boil over into much larger conflicts. From the standpoint of the project manager, you will not have the capability to address all conflict environments. Specific attributes to the way your company performs business will likely be out of your hands. However, within the realm of your own project, ensuring you foster an environment of open communication and professional idealism will go a long way to making the team more comfortable working together and with you.
Workplace Conflict Resolution Tips and Strategies
for Managers and HR
Workplace
conflict is one of the greatest causes of employee stress. Taking simple
steps to resolve conflict immediately can prevent many workplace conflicts
from escalating. Employee stress, and many related health complaints, as well
as workers’ compensation and bullying claims, can be prevented by managers
acting quickly to resolve issues between co-workers, or between themselves
and co-workers.
Workplace Conflict Resolution
Tips and Strategies
How to Mediate / Resolve
Workplace Conflict
Mediation is a complex process involving
high-level skill. Mediators use careful language to ensure that they do not
add to highly sensitive situations. If you do not feel confident that you can
successfully resolve the issues, call someone who can help you or advise you
on where to get help to resolve your workplace conflict.
|
Any good project/programme manager will likely recognize that conflicts are inevitable. Regardless of how effective you are at your job, you don’t have mind control capabilities or full control of the environment. As such, it is always important to be vigilant to spot conflicts early and also have a plan in place to deal with the conflicts that arise.
How one approaches a conflict and deals with it is often predicated by the type of conflict in question. There are some initial steps a project manager should take at the offset:
- Study the problem/conflict and
collect any information possible
- Leverage a conflict resolution
process (if it exists or is provided by your HR department)
- Ensure you have set the appropriate
atmosphere within your team
The important aspect of any conflict technique is that it should be done in haste. Conflicts generally brew over some time and attempting to resolve them rapidly or without thought is a sure-fire way to actually exacerbate the conflict and potentially introduce further animosity between the team members and the project manager themselves.
Specific Conflict Resolution Strategies
Now that the conflict is categorized and understood (at least better than before), the project manager can look at some of the various ways one may look at resolving the problem. The ways of dealing with a conflict are not all created equal and many of the concepts can actually lead to more problems. In the interest of thoroughness, all conflict resolution strategies will be listed and the pros and cons of each strategy outlined.
Forcing /Confrontation
This is also referred to as ‘competing’. Essentially, this is when one party pursues his/her own concerns despite the resistance of another person. In most cases, this will involve pushing one viewpoint or idea at the expense of another. From a project management standpoint, this may arise if two team members disagree on a specific design for a feature in the deliverable.
While it may
seem somewhat unprofessional, there are times when forcing may be the only
option. A good example would be a team member pushing an agenda or design
choice that is inconsistent with the strategy of the company moving forward. In
those situations, despite the objections of the individual, there may be no
alternative other than to make a unilateral decision in order to get the
project to move forward.
The confrontation style to
conflict resolution entails the party placing his desires above those of all
others involved in the conflict. Assertiveness is the hallmark of this
approach, and those employing this style of negotiation aim to address the
conflict head-on. It might involve high levels of emotions as the parties
establish positions in what can sometimes evolve into hostile communications.
Pros: Can provide a quick resolution to the conflict in question- Can increase the authority or
self-esteem of the individual who asserts dominance
- Can cause the opposing individual
to similarly assert their perceived authority, further escalating the
situation
- May lead to uncomfortable or even
angry exchanges
Collaboration
This is also
often viewed as the problem solving concept. This generally occurs in
conditions where the conflict may be more passive and the opposing parties are
not necessarily married to their ideas but are uncertain of the best approach
to take. Both bring valid points to the table and as such, both work together
to come to an agreement on a new idea that is a compendium of both their views.
Essentially, a collaborative conflict resolution approach would result in a
mutual agreement that is to the satisfaction of all parties involved.
The collaboration style involves
parties working together to resolve issues, and both sides come to the table
with win-win attitudes. It is a favorable negotiation style in formal dispute
resolution situations, such as mediation, where the parties employee a mediator
but must agree on the final, binding resolution.
Pros: Is unlikely to lead to further conflicts downstream as the opposing
parties have come to a mutual agreement- The outcome is that the problem is
solved
- Will result in a better mutual
trust relationship between team members
- Will re-enforce the project team
collaborative climate
- Project manager will gain respect
for being an effective diplomat
- Requires more effort and time for
the solution to be had
- May cause some trust issues if one
of the parties involved feels their opponent acquiesced too readily
While similar to collaborating, compromising involves getting two parties who are in a disagreement to come to some mutually satisfactory solution. The primary difference here is that compromise involves giving in on specific ideas or suggestions to move things forward. (Collaboration is more about taking both sets of ideas and using all dialog to find a new solution based off those ideas)
A compromise
will generally be most appropriate in situations that don’t involve complex
issues. It may be a simple discussion on which items should be used and which
should be discarded. In a compromise, each party will have to give up some of
their item suggestions to get to a final agreement on the selection.
Bargaining is the hallmark of the
compromise approach to conflict resolution. The conflicting parties can
identify some interests they are willing to compromise on to bring about a
resolution. While the emotional level might still be high, the compromise style
sometimes results in interim solutions when a full resolution is not
immediately possible. Parties might reach a settlement to prevent further
escalation of the conflict.
Pros:Is generally a relatively quick technique that will be helpful if time is an issue
- Can be a temporary ‘stop-gap’
before a better collaborative solution is attempted
- Generally less confrontational
- Is not always the most advantageous
to building good relationships between team members
- Requires some level of follow-up to
ensure anything agreed upon is being executed as per original discussions
For all
intensive purposes, withdrawing essentially means avoiding the conflict all
together. While it may seem like surrender to some, for certain cases of
expediency, it is sometimes an effective strategy depending on the situation.
Certain cases where the item being debated is just deemed too trivial or if
there are other matters that take priority, dodging a conflict near-term may be
appropriate.
Avoiding conflict involves one of
the conflicted parties avoiding communicating about or confronting the problem,
hoping it will go away. By not participating in the problem-solving process,
she is effectively removing herself from it. When employing this approach, the
conflict might go away if the other party doesn't press for a resolution. The
underlying differences between the parties are never resolved.
Pros:The argument has become heated, necessitating the need to withdraw
temporarily to avoid further tension- Reduces general stress for the
parties involved
- Allows for prioritization of other
tasks that have more immediate concern
- Allows for more investigation into
the issue to better prepare for revisiting the issue later
- May be viewed by opposing
individual as agreement to their viewpoint
- May cause tensions in relationships
with peers if approach is used too frequently
Smoothing: Accommodating: In some circles, this is also known as
accommodating. Essentially, this technique entails dealing with the concerns of
other individuals first before addressing your own. Smoothing often works in situations
where one side has less of a vested interest in the situation than the other.
For example, two engineers working on a problem in a target space that is
normally the domain of one of those engineers. He/she may have a stronger
opinion over particular design choices in that space and as such, the other
engineer will defer to that person’s opinion since that domain space is not of
vital concern to them. Also, this technique is employed when one party to the
discussion realizes they were wrong and decides to acquiesce.
The accommodating approach
emphasizes cooperation instead of assertiveness. A person places his interests
last and allows the other party to further her interests. The accommodating
approach often occurs when a party is not significantly invested in securing a
victory, because he does not perceive the alternative option as a significant
threat.
Pros: Will allow individual to focus and protect other areas while deferring
to other ones deemed less important- Can lead to improved relationship
with peer if deferring to their judgement
- May result in loss of confidence,
especially in dealing with individuals who have a tendency to be more
aggressive or boisterous
- Some individuals may actually react
negatives to your attempt at smoothing, feeling you are being too maternal
or condescending
Conflicts are a part of every day life. The level and severity of conflicts depend on the nature of the work, the type of people involved, the environment of the company, and so forth. How to deal with conflicts is an essential attribute of any project manager, especially in their day-to-day task of interacting with various individuals regularly. How to address these conflicts, deal with the parties involved, come to a resolution and move on is an important part of the project managers skill set. Conflicts that go un-noticed or unresolved for extended periods can negatively affect the outcome of the project.
AEE
213 CAT ONE FOR MARCH 2016
HUMAN
RESOURCE IN AGRICULTURE.
INSTRUCTIONS: Attempt ALL questions and in your
study groups, answer any other Two questions
and prepare a copy for handing over by 15th of April.
Q1. a)In detail, discuss what you understand by the
term human resource development as a n element of organization management? (10
marks)
b)Define the terms .(10
marks)
i) Planning. ii) Controlling iii) Coordinating iv)
Commanding v) Organizing
Q2.By use of a diagram,
describe in details the five stage model of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (20
marks)
Q3. a)
Outline any ten characteristics of a self-actualized person. (10 marks)
b)Give
a critical evaluation of Maslow’s theory of motivation (10 marks)
Q
4.a)
Compare and contrast McGregor’s motivational of theories X and Y (10 marks)
b)
According to the hygiene motivation theory, job satisfaction and job
dissatisfaction are not opposites. Discuss this phrase. (10 marks)
Q5.a)Define
Human Resource Development.(5 marks)
b)Human Resource
Development is an important aspect of agriculture extension and development.
Discuss.(15 marks)
Q6.Outline the key management principles necessary
for a successful Human Resource Development process.(20 marks)
Q7.As a manager for
an Agricultural Extension Programme, how well can you create a positive
working environment for your team?(20
marks)
Q8.Discuss in details any five leadership
typologies.(20 marks)
Q9.Diagrammatically, discuss Maslow’s theory of
motivation.(20 marks)
Q10. a) Outline the importance of human
resource management in any organization. (10 marks)
b) Describe in detail any two
typologies of leadership. (10 marks)