IRD/SBE 200 STATE, SOCIETY AND DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVES

IRD 200-State, Society and Development (lecturer 1)

Introduction

• The purpose of this course is to enable one gain deep understanding of the terms state, society and government; how they came about and their impact on development.
• State and society are two most important concepts that emerge in any discussion of liberty
• However it is not often clear what any given person means by those terms
• Part of the confusion stems from the fact the definitions can shift dramatically depending upon the theoretical approach of the speaker.
• Generally it is agreed that there is a distinction to be drawn between state and society.

Definition of State

The word “ State” in contemporary parlance often means the  “ Westphalia State” in reference to the Peace of Westphalia of 1648 and is used most often in political science .There are many definitions of the world  “ State “ and the following two are some of the importance.

1. Max Weber’s Definition

To him, “state is a human community that (Successfully) claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory.

This definition is important because it points out that the state is the ultimate depository of power in society which Mirrors Hobbes argument that once instituted, the Leviathan (the state) will prevent violent death.

2. Franz Opprenheimer’s definition

The state refers to the summation of privileges and dominating positions, which are brought into being by an extra economic power”. In this definition therefore a state is equivalent to the apparatus of rule, and can be understood as consisting of a group (or groups) of individuals who work according to certain rules within a particular framework.

From these two strands of thought, a state can be defined as “an organization political community, occupying a territory and processing internal and extern al sovereignty; which successfully claims the monopoly of the force”

Synonyms of State

Apart from the usage already mentioned the term state might also be used in the following instances:

1. To describe sub national territory divisions within a federal system as in the case of U.S.A and Nigeria
2. In common speech, the terms country nation and state are casually used as synonyms nut in a more strict usage they are distinguished.
• Country is the geographical area
• Nation designates people (although both Inter national and National may be us refer to that pertains to state (e.g. National Capital ,International Law)
• Sometimes state is used to mean government

Origin of Westphalia State

In the late 14^th century, a dispute over papal succession ensured. This dispute was exploited by secular authorities that increased their power at the expense of papal rule. The secular authorities, mainly composed of large, land holding dynasties (e.g. France) Started to king a more active and independent role in contract to the traditionally subsidiary role in the early middle ages. The great dynasties of Europe dramatically consolidated power by the beginning of I6 century. The shift to more independent, more secular actors became a major point of controversy in early modern Europe. -

The bloody conflicts that followed, blending the religious and political, pitied those who asserted the authority of the pope and Germany, the Holy Roman Empire) against those who asserted the authority of secular authorities and their sovereign ability to make internal policy when that policy reflected religious affiliation.

These conflicts culminated in the thirty years war of the century. In 1648, the powers of

Europe signed the treaty of Westphalia which ended the religious violence and which the church was stripped of temporal power and given to the states. The treaty of Westphalia recognized and ratified the major features of the new situation, which had developed in the course of the war. These features were:

1. The emergence of a central bureaucracy within a given area supported by an army that had suppressed all local centers of power and which had also destroyed the authority of the Holy Roman Empire and of the Pope in that territory.
2. As lbs army and bureaucracy developed, the population transferred their loyalty to the new center of power to which they now turned for their livelihood and for the solution of their most difficult and pressing problems.
3.  This transfer of loyalty led to the development of cohesion within the population and geographical boundaries became culturally, socially,, economically and militarily impermeable to other groups and people.

The Westphalia Treaty also sought to regulate the horizontal relationships between states. It provided that:-

1)      Only sovereign states could engage in International relations

2)      For the purpose of recognizing a state as an actor International relations it must have:-.

a.       A geographical territory.

b.      A definite population

c.        Effective military power to fulfill International obligations.

3)      All sovereign states were equal in International -Law and International relations.

Shortcomings of Westphalia Conceptualization of State:-

1)      It did not envisage the new dimensions of modern International System. For Instance after agencies of the Second World War the charter of UN added other functional agencies of the organization: UNESCO & WHO e.t.c. as players in the International System.

2)      The Westphalia Treaty only recognized a narrow ruling class as the players in politics of a territory. However by participating actively in the French Revolution in 1798 the population at large (claiming national will, as its justification) clearly indicates that all the population has a right to be consulted in political matters and to affect state policies. From this time on (the time of the French Revolution), the population became an important factor in the definition, alignment, formulation and implementation of domestic and foreign policies (Kenyan Referendum).

3)      A Westphalia Treaty recognized a state with a narrow class that was supported by mercenary forces. In the modern state however, citizen armies have replaced mercenary armies. The citizen army started with Napoleon whose military success was due to the patriotic zeal and consequent high morale associated with this citizen force.

4)      States are not equal in power. This discrepancy among states has been reinforced by the Technological Revolution of the 18th and l9” which occurred unevenly in Europe.

5)       Technological Revolution has also made it possible for quicker communications among states more than before, indeed easy penetration of states by words and images through the use of Mass media and by Soldiers during Warfare (American forces in Iraq and Kenyan youth).

6)      A state does not need a functional army to exist. For instance, the state of Somalia has been e in existence for more than 10 years despite not having a functional armed force.

Elements of state:

Legally in the modern world a state can be defined as an entity, which has the following characteristics: population, government, territory end sovereignty (monopoly of force within a territory)

Population.

Each state has citizens whoun1ber may vary from one state to the other. For example China has more than 1 Billion people while Seychelles has 40,000 people. Populations of such states are not essry1ioinogeneous for they could be multi-ethic, multi-religious and multi-racial. However some are homogenous and are referred to as ‘Nation-state” (.e.g. Somalia).

Territory

The can be no state without a territory of its own. The territory of a state includes land, air and water. It has a maritime jurisdiction extending 3 to 200 miles to the sea. The territorial authority of state also extends to ships on high seas under its flag as well as its embassies in foreign lands. There is no fixed size of a territory to qualify to be a state. A state’s territory could be as small as that of a city e.g. Vatican and Singapore; or as big as a whole continent e.g. Australia and U.S.A etc. the territory could be geographically scattered in a Archipelago of Islands-Japan, Indonesia etc or in far flung, lands and territories such as British Falklands islands. The territorial integrity of a state is guaranteed under the United Nation’s Charter and therefore cannot be violated through external aggression.

Government.

Government is the institution through which the state exercises its power over a territory. It is the agency through which the state manages the behaviour of the people within its borders. The government may be monarchical aristocratic Oligarchical democratically or dictatorial -but if there is no government, then anarchy is the outcome (look at Somalia).

Sovereignty.

Sovereignty refers to the capacity of the ruling class to make and implement decision, which are of interest to it. It is a reflection of the power of the ruling class notes only with respect to the other c1within the domestic environment but also with regard to ruling classes of other states within the International Community. Hence politically therefore, there is no ‘absolute sovereignty e.g. A country may have a higher sovereignty than another depending on whether this capacity is higher or lower than in the country of comparison.

Principal distinctions between State, Government and Society.

1)      State and Society.

State and Society may be distinguished on the following grounds:

                                  i.            In terms of time society is prior to the state. It means that society came into being much earlier than the state Family and community are the oldest social institutions. Even the hunters, the fruit gatherers and the root diggers had their ‘society, but the state as we know came much later:

                                ii.            State is just a part of society. The term society implies relations and associations of all kinds. These social relations have diverse forms in the religious, cultural, political, and economic setups. State is just one of these.

                              iii.            The two may also be distinguished in respect of their functions. The society performs a multiplicity of functions in order to meet manifold requirements of man. The state on the other performs only one role — making and enforcing a legal order so that citizens may lead a life of peace, security and honour.

                              iv.            The most important point of distinction between state and society is that state possesses the attribute of sovereignty, whereby it may compel and coerce others by the use of force. The society has no such force and whatever force it has it appears is in the form of moral persuasion.

2. State and Government.

Though state and Government are identified when we study them in concrete or practical terms, the two may be distinguished on a theoretical plane on these grounds.

          i.            The state is a bigger entity than includes all citizen of a country, but the government is a smaller unit that covers only those who are employed to perform its functions. The state is compared to a company in its entirety, while the government is compared to the company’s board of directors.

        ii.            The state is an abstract idea, whereas the government has its existence in a concrete form. The government may in a broad sense include all persons in the legislature, executive and the judiciary. In a narrower sense however, it may mean the administrators of the country sitting at the top level of a political structure.

      iii.            The power of the state is original and primary but the authority of the government is delegated, and derivative. The power of the state is absolute on account of being a sovereign entity; the provisions of the constitution limit the authority of the government.

      iv.            The state is a relatively permanent institution. It survives until its sovereign power is destroyed by the invasion of some other state. Governments in the other hand come and go office holders or ruling parties may be changed or even the type of government may change, but the state remains.

        v.            The membership is compulsory and citizens have no choice but to be members of their state by birth, on the other and one may choose not to be a member of the government:- One may choose to be a member o option party or a, guerilla army fighting to oust existing government. I

3. State and Nation

Though the modem state is in a technical sense a nation - state, a line of distinction may be drawn between a nation and a state.

1. A nation is a group of people bound together by the sentiment of nationality .As such it has spiritual existence. The binding force may draw sustenance from the commonness of race, religion, language cu1ture, history and geography. But the state is a political entity constituted by the four elements: population, territory government & sovereignty.
2. While most of the states are nation-states many others may be described as multi-nation states. The former USSR, former Yugoslayia were multi-national states. Most of the African states and multi-national states
3. But the most important distinction is that while the state sovereign and coercive association, the nation is just a group of people bound by ties of sentiments. For instance the Kurds of Iraq, Iran and Turkey are a nation; they do not have a state of their own. The .Zulus of South Africa are a nation complete with a King but do not have a separate state of their own.

IRD 200: State Society and Development — (Lecture 2)

Origin and historical development of the state

historioal1y, when political thinkers have attempted to discover the’ essential nature of “the state” and whether it has legitimacy, they have looked to the origins of that institution for answers. The theories espoused indirectly point out at the justification of the state.

1. Divine Origin Theory

This is the oldest and earliest theory on the subject of origin as well as political authority. All the world’s major religious treat authority as a creation of god. Christians, Jews, Hindus and Muslims subscribe to the view that the origin of political authority had a divine sanction. African communities have similar theories.

In the Old Testament of the Bible; God created the state (Hebrew Nation) to fulfill 1-lis will. According to St. Augustine & other church Fathers, the State is a remedy for sin. The reason for this according to them is that the state is a moral community - a group of persons who are governed under the same laws. It is out of this that they were convinced 4 that unless the state was for ethical purpose, it was no more. Such a state without moral ties according to St. Augustine is a “Highway robbery on a large scale”. Furthermore, the state is seen as a corporate body whose membership is a common possession of all its citizens and it exists1 supply its members with the advantages of mutual and just government. -

In the New Testament, Paul in Romans 13:1-7 enjoins Christians render obedience to the powers that be because they are ordained by God. Throughout the middles ages the view prevailed that the pope, was the Vicar of Christ on earth, and as such us word was gospel truth. In this way, the distinction between the state and religion was blurred. The king became a divine nominee invested with all powers and only accountable to the creator for all his acts of commission and omission. In Ancient Egypt the king was the son of the sun —God “isis” and to the people of Japan the Emperor is still regarded as the son of their sin -god “Nippon”.

Merits of the Theory

1. The theory explains a historical reality where in most cases authority is seen as having divine origin. Even in African societies, some people from certain families are bestowed with leadership because it is thought that the divine is behind the appointment.
2. It can also explain the presence of some modern states that can be regarded as espousing a theoretic system of governance .e.g. Iran; as well as the middle ages Europe where the distinction between state and religion was blurred.
3. The ideas of St. Augustine and other church fathers can explain why there is a crisis in the modern state Africa. For instance, insecurity in Northern Kenya characterized by cattle rustling is as a result of citizens not respecting -the laws of the state. The same ideas can also explain why there is corruption, unequal development and distribution of resources. This echoes the words of St. Augustine that without the state being of moral ties it is a highway robbery on a large sale”.
4. The theory also explains a scenario in the past when men obeyed authorities in circumstances when they were not ready to govern themselves.

Criticism of divine theory in light modern society.

Some scholars have labeled the following criticism to the theory;

1.      It is superstitions and is not appealing to the modern times with advancement in new learning and enlightenment. The modem man and woman prefer to think that a leader must achieve his/her position but not get it by-ascription.

2.      The current generation is not ready to accept the fallacy that they have no part in the creation of their political organization, or that God prefers a monarchical system alone or that their ruler is not accountable to them for acts of omission or commission (see Kenya where ministers resigned due to corruption.

3.      It blurs the boundary between state and religion and this can be dangerous as is revealed in the middle Ages where inquisition and intolerance thrived.

4.        This theory is a reactionary (sees current social order as needing replacement by an earlier system) and cannot be appreciated by the people in the present age.

II. Genetic/Naturalistic Theory

This is based on sociological or group dynamics. 1Iere the argument is that the state is an eventual extension of the family. In these ideas the first group of collective human life is the family or the household, the last is the state. Aristotle was the first to profound this theory. To him, a state is a kind of community. He defines a community as a union of unlike persons who because of their differences are able to satisfy their needs through the exchange of goods and services. He understands the state as the highest level of development of communities because of the equality of membership in it. In this theory, a society of many families forms a village under a king. Association of many villages on the other hand constituted a state which was an end in itself and a perfection of government because of equality of citizens.

On his part Sir Henry Maine in tracing the evolution of family to a state viewed a family as consisting of a male, his wife and his children. But other families kept breaking out of this family, still practicing the same tradition. It is from these breakaway families from an original one that a clan or tribe came into being. And it is from the tribe that the state emerged. This demonstrates that “from the earlier patriarchal family emerged the warrior ruler judge and as political societies increased in size and complexity, political headship and leadership were asserted and recognized as a significant form or social control.

Merits

1. Can explain the presence of such political societies as nation—stage e.g. Somali Republic that can be said to have originated from a common ancestor.
2. From Aristotle’s ideas the state is one where differences in the citizenry lead to diverse goods in the state satisfy,’ the needs of citizens. This mirrors the idea that division of labour is crucial’ ry41 this fact is a reality in modern Africa a d industrial societies in general.
3. This theory also helps explain why states carry out national integration so that cultural differences do not imperil the co-existence of its citizens. In this sense national integration is a form of social control.

Criticism

I). It cannot explain multi-ethnic and multiracial states e.g. South Africa

2). It stands on social rather than political hypothesis i.e. does not recognize or espouse the view that states have emerged from the need of some human’ beings to conquer and dominate others.

III.The Conquest/Force Theory of the State.

This depends on the assumption that the state is fundamentally the result of forcible subjection though continues warfare among political groups. It depends on the premise that ‘justice is the interest of the stronger” and “might is right”, war begot the king”. It relies on the premise that man is a creature of lust for power that prompts him to: display-the might of his muscle and drag others into his subjection. From ancient times, the tradition has b-en that the strong has dominated the weak. The male in the family, the chief in the tribe, the king in the state etc.

Among the political thinkers to propagate this theory, Jenks notes that’ historically, it means the government is the outcome of human aggression, that the beginning of : the state are to be sought in the capture of the feebler tribes and generally speaking in the self seeing domination acquired by superior physical force. The progressive growth-from tribe to Kingdom and from Kingdom to empire is but a continuation of the same.

Merits

1) The theory makes sense since most of African states have their origin in European conquests and colonization.

2). Before colonialism, some African societies can be said to have been involved in conquest for state building. Examples are the Nandi, the Wanga kingdom e.t.c.

Demerits

1) Does not envisage a scenario that conquests could be generated from within the state.

IV. Marxist Theory.

This theory claims that the state emerged due to the internal warfare within the society. The theory postulates that there was no state in the most primitive stage of social life as there was an egalitarian existence and hence no contending classes. The origin f state is traced to the invention of Agriculture and creation of private property when the dominant class came into being by being the owner of the means of production

Since the owners of the means of production accumulated their capital through exploitation of workers, they needed some authority to protect their interest. Thus the state is not something that is introduced from outside as advocated by conquest theorists; rather is a society’s internal development.

The views are advanced by various Marxists writers: Karl Marx, Fredrick Engel’s, Gramsci and Lenin. All held that since-tat state is an instrument of oppression used by the dominant classes to oppress the class that does not own the means of production the state has germs of its own destruction. They envisage the state as withering away with the resolution of class antagonism when the proletariat seizes power. So strong was this view among communists that they thought the whole world would be converted to communism to create classless society.

Merit

1. Inequality in many countries in the developing world confirms the Marxist ideas on the origin of the state.

2. In many developing countries there are conflicts challenging those in power. A good case is in Latin American where the poor hive come activists to wrench off power from those in authority. In Kenya, the aggrieved group like the Mau Ogiek further confirms the validity of this theory.

3. In many developing countries there is the presence of mass unemployment and this could mirror Marxist ideas of the state allowing the owners of the means of production to supplant and exploit labour.

Demerit

I. ‘The state in the modem society has not weakened but has been strengthened.

2. Does not explain a scenario most often seen where a state is as a result of eternal conquests.

V. The Charismatic Theory.

The charismatic theory states that “the state” comes into being when a superior being or group of beings enforces their will over the other people. A dolf Hitler was the most drnià1lc manifestation of this theory. He noton1y considered himself superior but 1so believed that his Aryan people were inherently superior to the rest of mankind. Another example was Napoleon Bonaparte. Such states are temporary. They pass with the individual or group.

VI. The Sportive Theory

This is most Bizarre theory propagated by Jose Ortega Gasset. This theory sees the state as merely the result of an instinct for play, adventure and social conquest common to young men who lived in primitive societies that can be defined as loose hordes.

VII. Social Contrast Theory

This is based on the idea that the authority of the ruler is based on some kind of agreement between him and his subjects. A clear cut and elaborate expression of this theory was furnished by the trinity of Thomas Hobbes and John Locke of England in the 17^th and Jean Jacques Rousseau of France in the 18^th centuries

Using different illustrations, they arrived at the conclusion that the state was preceded with a period without authority of any kind or what they termed “a state of nature”. The state of nature is terminated by a covenant whereby the people- surrendered their natural rights into civil by the action of authority instituted by them. The starting point of this social contrast theory is therefore a hypothetical state of nature.

a)      Thomas Hobbes

According to Hobbes’ this state of nature is a blank pa without society state and government. It is a pre-social as well as a pre-political condition in which there is no puce, no collective life, no order, no science, no learning, no commerce, no navigation. no Culture, no industry, no property, no arts, no letters, but all warfare and continual fear of violent death. Since there is war of all against all, man is the enemy of man. The life of man, under this condition was “solitary, poor nasty, brutish and short”.

To remedy this situation the individuals, agree to up some of their liberties to another man or the sovereign or king or to an assembly of men. In this manner society state and government are established. Hobbes was trying to justify the rule of King Charles in his book, - The Leviathan. He argued further that since the state acts on behalf of the citizens, resistance against the state is illogical because that amounts to the resistance against oneself and is as a matter of fact an attempt to revert back to the state of nature.

He was also of the view that if there is a bad law of the sovereign/government main then the citizens are not the ones to judge it as such —judgment was to be done by God. Besides, he argued that religions Sand the church are subordinate to the state. To the Christian who felt that the government’s commands violated the law of God, he insisted that if such a person could not obey the sovereign he must go to Christ in martyrdom.

Merit

1. Convincingly explains the need of state to bring order. ,Without a state or a functional one life is unpredictable as it is seen in  Somalia or post-election violence in 2008 in Kenya,
2. The modem state has proscriptions — mores that focus on disapproved behaviour e.g. laws that prohibit assault, theft, rape, murder and incest.      The state also has prescriptions — mores that focus on approved behaviour -     include, that parent provides support for their children, one must honour one’s business contract etc.
3. Hobbes argues that the citizens are obliged to obey the law of the sovereign to prevent anarchy and this is mandatory for a peaceful social order.

Demerit

1. The argument that resistance against the sovereign is to revert to anarchy is farfetched. This is because the resistance could be for a better social order e.g. a agitation for multi-party .politics in Kenya. ( 1992)
2. The argument that the laws of the state cannot be unjust is false. This is because some laws in the state can be unjust. Good example is the law of apartheid pre black African National Congress (ANC) rule in South Africa or the laws that supported Single party rule in Kenya.
3. The argument that it is not for the citizen to judge a bad law is misplaced in the current circumstances of a vibrant civil culture where citizen groups exert pressure to have a bad law changed.
4. His argument that the sovereign should disregard religions if need be is a dangerous idea that has made some leaders in Africa disregard counsel from religious leaders. Moreover it can lead to intolerance particular to religious minorities.
5.  Critics have dismissed such hypothesis of origin as being absurd and impossible. A primitive people, without even a society could not have suddenly woken up and formed a complex social contract such as that talked of by Hobbes.

b)      John Locke

Locke starts with a state of nature which is pre-political but not pre-social. Individuals living in this state have society in the form of peaceful collective life and enjoy three natural rights relating to life, liberty and property Society also has equality where each has enough of what he needs and not more than another.

However; man’s degenerate nature, meant that this state of bliss was not going to last long because of absence of authority to executive laws and an impartial judge to give and endorse just decisions. In order to escape from this ill condition and gain security and certainty, man saw the need to enter into a contract and create a civil society or commonwealth.

Locke supposes the making of two contracts .On establi1st the civil society where man surrenders not all his natural rights but the right to interpret and execute the laws of nature. The other contract is that of-establishing a sovereign who will rule with the consent of the ruled. The king enters into this contract with the community and   not with an individual. The community retains the right to remove the sovereign if he fails to defend their natural rights. In his work ‘Treatise of Civil government”. Locke argued that the people would obey the Monarch, keep the law, pay taxes etc that the monarch decrees on the other hand the Monarch should protect their lives, their liberties and property. Thomas Jefferson used Locke’s theory when he drafted the declaration of independence.

Merits

The views of Locke are relevant to political societies in the following ways:

1. The laws of many democratic societies are products of constitutions which are sanctioned by the citizens.
2. Lack of absolute monarchies inmost African countries at least justifies Locke’s theory.
3. Democratic governments at least espouse separations of powers between the legislature, executive arid judiciary as pointed by John Locke.
4. He pointed out that citizens had not irrevocably transferred powers to the sovereign. This mirrors the modem world where there are periodic elections to remove non performing leaders.

Demerits

1. His theory is not convincing from the point of history since man has always lived under acme authority.
2. The making of laws in some African countries is a tricky affair where the powerful seek to have their way.
3. In the day to day running of government in most African countries the executive rules the other arms of government.
4.  Some countries in Africa cannot be said to have resulted from contract but rather deceit and coercion.

c)      Jean Jacques Rousseau

Rousseau draws a rosy picture of the state of nature in which man is neither moral, nor immoral but amoral, a “noble savage” leading a life of “idyllic happiness and primitive simplicity”. With the rise of civilization and the institution of private property, however, Rousseau notes, this condition could not last long. The reason is that the presence of private property created a sense of jealousy and struggle which replaced the condition of pristine self-sufficiency and happiness. To deal with this bead state, the people made a contract according to whose terms A,B,C,D,E (individuals) etc surrendered their natural rights to the collective whole created by the union of A+B+C+D+E etc.

Like the men of Hobbes, they surrendered all, but unlike them, they put their persons and powers under the supreme direction of the general will. Rousseau says that “since ach gives himself up to all, actually there is little that he gives up in fart, the individual acquire the same right that is given up. Man thus not only gains the equivalent of what is lost, but also acquires greater power to preserve what is left.

Thus what man loses by the social contract is his natural liberty; what he gains is civil liberty and the ownership of all that he possesses. Rousseau further adds that direct democracy is achieved since sovereignty lies with the people and they excise it in the name of the general will or good of all.

Importance of the social Contract Theory

1. The idea of popular sovereignty and representative government: Though the social contract theory is speculative, deductive and imaginative, its real value cannot be denied. It did displace the theory of divine origin that had had become a powerful instrument is the defense of kingly despotism. It thus provided a powerful instrument for combating irresponsible rulers and justification for resistance against tyranny. Out of it, the idea of popular; sovereignty came out finally in the form of the representative government.
2. Removal of bad rulers: from the ideas of Hobbe, Locke and Rousseau the idea that the governors rule with the consent of the governed and that the governed have the inherent and primary right to remove their rulers whenever they become destructive of their aspirations, gained importance in a world that was hitherto reeling under absolute monarchies.
3.  Inspired the American and French revolutions: The American and French revolutions were inspired by these ideas and the emergence of the American constitution after the Philadelphia convention was the first manifestation of a “contract” between the governed and the governor.
4. Enforcing Performance, it also explains the reason as to why modern industrial societies are putting in place other control and monitoring mechanisms to ensure efficient and effective public service delivery. A good case in Kenya is the introduction of performance contract in the public sector. For instance, a District Commissioner may sign a contract to end cattle rustling, which translates into improvement of security.
5. Combating corruption: The contract theory has also equipped the citizens and their representatives like, the media, civil society, faith based organizations, to pressure those in authority keep the corrupt out of the system we see this happen in western European countries and other developed states.

Types of State/Political system

There have been many classifications of political systems in the history of mankind; the following are examples of varieties/ types of states.

a.      Traditional varieties political systems.

Aristotle writing in a period of small city states attempted to classify political systems by the criterion of how many people welded political authority in the state. He arrived at the classification of

1. Government by one person- he called monarchy
2. Government by a few- he called it Aristocracy
3. Government by many- Democracy

Aristotle attempted to make this classification more elaborate and sophisticated by recognizing that each form of government could aim to either serve the general interest or else only that of rulers, in which case each became ‘perverted’. Correspondingly one found the following:

4. Tyranny (perverted form of monarchy
5. Oligarchy (perverted form of aristocracy
6. Monocracy (perverted form of Democracy

At the time Aristotle was writing such a classification was appropriate. Even by the time of the century, it made sense for the French, philosopher, mantesqueu to distinguish between three types of government Republican ,Monarchical and despotic. This is because in a Europe where many kings were attempting to increase their personal powers, it seemed important to distinguish between monarchy as a system of government in which power, although primarily in the hands of a single person, was regulated by constitutioa1 laws and despotism as a system in which a single peon ruled arbitrarily without regard to law or principles.

b.      A modern typology of political systems

The most common modem classification in western political science consists of the distinctions between the fol1ov1ng types of state

                                  i.            liberal- democratic

                                ii.            Totalitarian- Democratic

                              iii.            Autocratic

The Liberal- democratic state.

The liberal- democratic system is supposed to posses the characteristics as outlined below:

          i.            Popular participation and ultimate control over government by citizens

·         This is supposed to be ensured by more than one political party competing for political power.

·         Regular elections based on universal franchise to determine which party should run the government.

        ii.            Presence of pressure groups-This is meant to ensure further popular participation. Examples of pressure groups include trade unions and other voluntary associations which are free to operate and attempt to

      iii.             Recognition of civil liberties-The freedom to form voluntary associations is defended by the recognition of civil liberties such as freedom of speech, association and religion as well as freedom from arbitrary arrests, The mass media is also free from government control and can criticize the government from various ideological viewpoints.

      iv.            Separations of powers-The flowers of the central government (or executive is limited and regulated by the law and by the separation of powers between the executive the legislative (the law making body which should be a representative body) and the judiciary which should be independent.

        v.            Limited political control over social and economic spheres

Many aspects of social and economic activity are regarded as beyond the jurisdiction of government control. This ‘implies that government should not regulate such social matters as where a citizen should live, how many children he (and his wife) should have; what religion he should profess, or how and where he earns a legitimate living.

In the sphere of’ the economy the government should maintain only a supervisory role over its operation and leave most decisions to the workings of a free market.

      vi.            Liberal democracies are ruled by civilians who compete with each other for political power in an open non-violent manner. The members of the armed force participate in politics only as private citizens or else as pressure groups alongside many o tier pressure groups in society.

The Totalitarian State

Apart from its provision for popular participation (through a single mass party), a totalitarian system is quite different (indeed the opposite) of a liberal-democratic system. The characteristics of a totalitarian state are as discussed below;

          i.            Regulation of all aspects of individual and social life

All aspects of individual and -social life are considered to be the political concern of the government and fit for regulation. The economy in particular is central y directed and managed rather than being left to individual initiative or market forces.

        ii.            One dominant political party

One party is politically and legally dominant. All legitimate political activity is channeled through this party, which is normally highly centralized, and the arty provides the only institutionalized basis for competition, recruitment and opposition.

      iii.            Official ideology

There is an official ideology (normally either Marxist-Leninisrn or fascism) which is upheld by the ruling single party and which, in theory regulate all governments decisions and political activity within the system.

      iv.            The judiciary and the Mass media are rigidly controlled by the government, and the latter case, are expected to “indoctrinate’ the people to the official ideology. Civil Liberties as defined in Liberal democracies are seriously curtailed.

        v.            Terror is used, where necessary, the enforce obedience and suppress anticism

The Autocratic State

The not allow mass political participation-The first and most important characteristic of this is that it does not encourage, or even allow, mass political participation through either a political party or voluntary associations/pressure groups. There might be a ruling party and even trade unions, but these are likely to be facades rather than genuine channels for participation or communication and are importantly used as instruments of control authority to keep the corrupt out of the system we see this happen in western European countries and other developed states.

ii) Lack of effective ideology-There is not an effectively articulated or communicated ideology.

Many autocratic regimes lay great stress on nationalism, but in a vague and generally rather ineffectual way.

iii) Resort to open force-In the absence of an effective mass party or communicated ideology, many autocracies regimes has more need to resort to open force and coercion in order to enforce political obedience.

iv) Political power is less institutiona1ized (by companion with an effective  totalitarian or liberal— democratic system, and the basis for rule is found in either a traditional, political elite or in a new modernizing elite, the latter often being drawn in large part from the armed forces.

v) Rule is arbitrary and often highly personalized with little respect for law or legal rights.

Problems and Defects of Modern Typology of Political Systems

The following can be said to be defects of the modern typology of political systems.

1. Biasness towards the United States and other western countries.

It is fairly obvious that the United States and Britain are generally regard by those who accept the typology as model examples of the liberal democratic state end the communist countries as examples of the totalitarian state. But it is arguable that the characteristics attributed to each misrepresent or exaggerated the real differences in a number of ways. For example the typology omits from consideration criteria according to which the communist countries would appear in a much more favourable light than the United States or Britain. Most obviously it ignores the questions of economic equality (i.e. in come differences are more pronounced in Liberal democratic states than in communist states)

2. Exaggeration with regard to participation

The distinction also exaggerates the degree of difference with regard .to effective and meaningful political participation in favour of Liberal- democratic countries. The idea that there is more mass participation in the USA is often exaggerated given that their choice of parties or presidential candidates at election times is really very limited and that the voluntary associations and pressure groups which have any real chance of influencing government decisions are generally those of the “business” class.

3. Ignores the fact that harassment is also present in liberal— democrat: states. Freedom of speech and expression in all countries are always accepted if it is within the official ideology. For instance in Britain there is a fairly severe form of practical censorship of the press through the use of government “security” notices. One should equally recognize that the single party system of several communist countries allow for vigorous debate and disagreement within them sometimes  even openly expressed through the state- owned newspapers.
4. Alleged independence of the judiciary in Liberal democratic system is farfetched. This is a persuasive criticism: of the modern typology of modern classification of states. The reason is that senior judges are appointed (in both liberal- democratic and totalitarian systems) by the government in power and are expected to conform to the dominant ideology as well as to apply laws which are in a sense, ideologically inspired. It is also known  for judges in liberal democracies to be pressured behind the scenes to bring in verdicts favourable to the government
5. The typology not collectively exhaustive

In this typology, all Africans and third world states are classified as “autocratic”. This is an excessively Eurocentric perspective because it implies that the European political system is better than those of other systems in the developing world. Secondly, lumping all states in third world as autocratic does not make any sense since those states are not heterogeneous. For instance, you cannot compare the Kenyan system with Ugandan system or Nigerian system with that of Botswana.

(b) The Marxist classification of Political Systems

The central characteristics of any society according to Marx and his followers, is the way it is divided (or not divided) into classes according to a particular mode of production. Marx argued that the most intelligent way to classify states is according to the nature of the dominant classes and mode of production which serves their interests. Each state is essentially the dictatorship of the dominant class.

Historically speaking mankind has experienced three stages and types of state each with its peculiar classes and characteristics:

1. The slave owners state
2. The feudal state
3. The bourgeons or capitalist state
4. The proletariat state- anticipated by Marx and typified by the Soviet Union.

But according to Marxist- Leninists, the proletariat state was a short-lived transitional type of state preparing the way for modem communist society in which there will be no more classes, no more exploitation and subjugation, and the state will therefore cease to axial. It will wither away.

i) Primitive communist systems (non state system)

-          Was based on collective ownership of the means of production, including land that was owned by all.

-          People provided the means of subsistence for themselves by common effort and consumed them also in common.

-          Was an egalitarian (classless society) thus according to Marxists there was no state.

ii) The slave owner’s state

The slave owner’s state was typically made up of three classes: namely

          i.            The slave-owners

        ii.             freemen, and

      iii.            Slaves.

The slave-owners and the freemen in society were citizens and enjoyed all the civil rights. The slaves-were-not-allowed to be citizens. They were tied to their owners as property. They could be bought or sold. They worked for their masters without pay and were fed and clothed just enough to enable them to be sufficiently productive for their master. The slave owners established their own dictatorship over the wide society. They made laws, passed judgments and executed them.

Historically examples of slaves-owning status include ancient Greece and Rome and more recently the Ameriças where the most brutal form of s1ited for over years. In Africa various forms of domestic slavery existed in pre-colonial African political systems such as those of Ahsante and Hausa-Fulani empires, although these were much more humane.

iii) The Feudal State

Given, advances in science and technology, the slave state could not last forever. The technology made it possible to cultivate large estates of land. Consequently slave labour became increasingly unprofitable to the slave owners. Therefore the slave state slowly gave way to the feudal state. One way in which this happened is through the gradual passage of free slave into the position of serfs or peasants. Unlike the slave, the serf had a cottage in which he lived with his family, and a plot of land on which he was allowed to work part of the time. But most of the time, the serf worked for his feudal Lord. The clearest historical examples of the feudal state existed in Western Europe in the middle Ages. Again some pre-colonial Africa states such as the. Hausa/Fulani empires approximated to this type in certain respects.

iv) The Bourgeois or Capitalist State

This is the state dominated by those in industry, commerce and finance (the dominant class who own the means of production) and workers who sell their labour power. While the serfs earned their livelihood by working part-time on the small pieces of land allocated to them by the feudal lord, the workers lived by selling their labour power to the capitalist for wages. What made makes this system fundamentally more exploitative was the fact that workers owned no land or other means of production. They were in essence ex-serfs who had been forcibly deprived of even their small plots of land and hence had to sell their lab6ur power at less than its real worth order to survive. Marxist believes that a dictatorship of the bourgeoisie was established with own laws, courts, army, prisons, and police etc.

iv) The Proletariat State

According to Marxists, the capitalist system is bound to become historically outdated because of oppression of workers. Hence, the system will give way to a communist society that abolishes private property. This change is accomplished by the workers/proletariats, revolution. To avoid fallback to capitalist system, Marxist-Leninist theorists justify the existence of a proletarian state which is bound in certain respect, to be less liberal democratic state. There must for example be a single ruling party of the proletariat and a limitation on civil freedom so as to prevent the restoration of capitalism. The proletarian (communist) party, while representative of the masses of the people, must be fairly highly centralized in order to be able to restructure the whole economy and society in the full direction of communism. Nevertheless: on the- attainment of communist society, the state will wither away.

Weakness of the Marxist Classification

The Marxist classification is important because it highlights the fact that liberal-democratic state is often far more repressive than it pretends to be, and that it is based on a foundation of economic exploitation. However the classification suffers from the following weakness.

i) Does not differentiate different ryes of Liberal — democratic states

E.g. the Liberal-democratic state such as Britain and a fascist state such as Nazi, Germany, though both capitalist, are not similar. In Africa some capitalist states e.g. Military and multiparty regimes are not differentiated by this system, yet are obviously different.

ii) Stateless society not being attained-The Soviet Proletarian state has not given way to a stateless society as envisaged by Leninist-Marxist thinkers. Instead the former soviet republics are increasingly embracing Liberal-democratic system.

iii) Inability to categorize economic and political structures in Africa-The most important defect this typology has is its inability to characterize the economic systems or the political structures of African and those of other third world societies. African societies might be incorporated into the international capitalist system in the sense that they trade with it, but their own main domestic mode of production is hardly capitalist. Their main mode of production is that of the pleasant farmer, who continues to own his own land and means of subsistence, and who sell his labour to the capitalist enterprises, if at all, through choice rather than because he is obliged to do so. The main form of exploitation of this peasant class arguably lies not in capitalist employers or in one world market but rather in the surplus extracted by state marketing boards from the income peasants earn, to a greater or lesser extent, from producing cash crops. This type of exploitation is not linked to particular types of political system.

How State Influences Development (Lecture 3)

The problems of least developed countries are of such a magnitude that they cannot be left to the free working of the economic threes. In the early development where private enterprise is not fully developed, the government has a critical role to play. Areas that states intervene to spur up development include the following:

(1) - changes in institutional framework

Institutions refer to habitual practices in society. It is to a system of ideas, beliefs, attitudes and values that govern behaviour in everyday life in all the basic systems in society namely, the political, the educational, the family and religious amongst others. Economic development can take place faster if there is rapid change in social attitudes and values entrenched in these societal institutions. For instance in Kenya the state has been trying to eradicate FGM because the practice is seen to be retrogressive since it has prevented the girl child from pursuing education.

(2) Social and economic overheads

Social and economic overheads are large service investments which are beyond the means of private entrepreneur and so the government must invest in them. Examples of these are railways, roads, electricity hospitals, educational institutions e.t.c. Social and economic overhead costs are important because they facilitate connectivity and hence makes it conducive for investors to locate investments in certain j1aces that would have been by passed.

(3) Enactment of fiscal policy

Fiscal policy focuses on government taxation and expenditure. This public sector activity is crucial for macro- economic stability hence provides a conducive environment for development. Taxation in developing countries has traditionally had two purposes.

1. First tax concession (special consideration/exemption) and similar fiscal incentives have been thought of as a means of stimulating private enterprise. Such concessions and incentives have been offered to foreign private investors to induce them to locate their enterprises in the less developed countries such as incentives may indeed increase the inflow of private foreign resources although the overall benefits of such special treatment of foreign firms are subject to debate.
2. The second purpose of taxation-the mobilization of financial resources to finance public expenditures is by far the most important. Whatever the prevailing political or economic ideology of the less developed country, its economic and social progress depends largely on its government’s ability to generate sufficient revenues to finance an expanding program of essential non- revenue yieldiii-5’l5lic services- health, education, transport etc and other components of economic and social infrastructure.

(4) Enactment of Development Blueprint

A blueprint refers to a document whose principles guide the development process into the future. A good examp1e of this is the Kenya vision 2030. The document seeks to guide the Kenyan nation to be a prosperous middle income country by 2030. The blue print details three core areas to be concentrated on: political, social and economic. On the political sector, the country expects to create a participatory and accountable political system that meets the aspiration of all citizens. On social pillar, the country expects to narrow the gap between the rich and poor. On the economic pillar the state expects to tap the potential of ill economic sectors — pastoralism included.

(5) Social development

Social development refers to a type of development that creates harmony in the long run between the citizens of a country. This can be achieved through.

1. Bridging vertical distances—Vertical distances refer to social distance between members of different classes (income groups) in society. Any society that seeks to have sustainable development must not create extreme Income inequality in the country, since this may generate social conflict between those who have and those who do not have.
2. Bridging horizontal social distances-Horizontal social distances refer to social differences between different ethnic, religious or geographical areas. Any government should ensure that all regions have their fare share or development.  If this is not done ethnic conflicts are likely to be experienced since those from developed areas will look down on those from undeveloped areas ‘and the latter are likely to fear domination. Extreme horizontal distances is responsible for ethnic conflict in Africa.

(6) Engaging in international Relations

Any states engage in international relations. Interstate relations -t meant to benefit the country in the following ways.

          i.            Facilitates trade between two countries.

        ii.            Enhances partnership in combating terrorist acts and crime that is transnational in character.

      iii.            Assists to combat the ecological degradation and global warning which are serious problems in our days.

(7) Legal framework

The state has a role of providing a legal framework through legislation .This is the role of parliament in all countries. Examples in Kenya of laws include: the children Act which seeks to protect children below the age of 18, the land adjudication Act which seeks to guide the process of ascertainment of land rights in non— adjudicated areas.

(8) Provision of Social Welfare

Social welfare refers o a system o benefits given to the poor and those excluded in one way or another from society. It is based on the assumption that the market cannot meet the needs of all in the country and hence the state and non-state actors should intervene. Examples of welfare in Kenya include free medical care to the under 5 free universal primary education etc.

Negative influences of the state

The state may not influence development positively. Sometimes the influence is negative and this includes for instance the following

          i.            Skewed re- distribution of resources: The state may re- distributes resources in a skewed manner i.e. to favour the rich. A good example is where those that are politically powerful e.g. MPs do not pay taxes and yet the common people are taxed.

        ii.             Exclusion in governance-The state may exclude certain people particularly minorities in state governance. A good example is Rwanda where civil war is contributed among other things by exclusion of some people from governance. Example is where state jobs are given to members of a particular ethnic group or region.

      iii.             Corruption: Some state functionaries are overly corrupt for they use public funds for their own use. Such regimes are referred to as k1epmciescies (stealing regimes). One characteristic of such states is the formation of many committees to probe into corruption but the findings are never implemented.

Note: the above characteristics may characterize some states that are referred to as failed states. Other characteristic of failed states include

1. Failure to resolve conflicts within its borders e.g. Somalia
2. Failure to meet the needs of citizens e.g. food insecurity

TOPIC 2: GOVERNMENT AND DEMOCRACY (LECTURE 4)

Government is the chief organizer in a society, coordinator, arbiter, manipulator, controller and protector. It is man’s oldest and most universal institution of control and coercion. It is therefore important for the development of society. Without government, there will be a state of “anarchy”, comparable to the jungle where there is survival for the fittest, and a war of all against all.

Traditionally, government has been seen as being centered in the operations of the executive, the judiciary and the legislature. The people especially the common man or “mwananchi” plays his role through his popularly elected representatives. The term “government” in modern sense is understood in two closely linked ways. First, it at times refers to a particular aggregate of persons each with peculiar virtues, performing certain functions in a particular society. Second, it refers to a particular set of institutions performing certain defined functions.

We can therefore visualize the government by and large as a body of persons and institutions that make and enforce laws for a particular society or state.

Characteristics of Government

1.      Total Authority over involuntary membership

The rules, laws and degrees set by the government apply equally with certain limitations in some instances. In democratic governments, there is no such thing as the chief executive (president or prime minister) being above the law. This is not the case in authoritarian regimes where the chief executive is usually “above the law”.

2.      Authoritarian Rule

Government rules are superior to all other rules of other organizations within or even outside its territorial confines. The chief guide of government rules and laws is usually the national constitutions in the case of federal countries such as the USA, Canada, Australia, Germany, India or Nigeria.

3.      Monopoly of Life and Death

The government can imprison, punish or executive violators of the law ‘. This gives the government powers of life and death. Even though some criminal organizations such as the Mafia in Italy and Mungiki here Kenya, often executive violators of their own nefarious laws, they are exercising illegal powers. Hence, if caught by the government, the) will meet the same fate as other violators of the law.

4.      Overwhelming Force

The government is the only organization that can and does use legitimate force to compel obedience to its rules and laws. Any other organization attempting to use force to compel obedience to its rules and laws will be accused of taking the law into their hands.

Though governments may not be the only organization that uses force as seen a above in the case f criminal gangs, still the degree of legitimate force that can be assembled by the government is overwhelmingly greater. This force is in the security machineries — police, army and other paramilitary organizations.

5.      Legitimacy.

Legitimacy refers to perception of rule as correctly and rightly exercised. Most governments seek legitimacy either through elections or other agreed constitutional means. There are governments however which can exist without legitimacy and these are usually the military or the revolutionary types but who eventually impose legitimacy on their governments. For a government to command respect, fear or obedience it must seek legitimacy. This legitimacy is usually through elections, referendums, plebiscites etc.

TYPES OF GOVERNMENT

The type of government in any state is the result of that state’s history as well as its social economic and political realities. In this sense, every state is unique and there are therefore many different forms and types of government to be found around the world. To study types of government we need to classify them into three broad classes: traditional governments, dictatorial governments and democratic governments.

Traditional government: include monarchies, oligarchies, aristocracies and democracies.

Dictatorships: include absolute monarchies, autocracies, one-party totalitarian regimes and military dictatorships.

Democratic governments: include federal governments, unitary government constitutional monarchies, parliamentary governments, quasi-parliamentary and quasi-presidential governments and presidential governments.

A Traditional government

1.      Monarchies-A monarchy is a system of government where the highest a authority is the king. Queen Emperor or Empress— usually called a monarch Power is vested in one person. The monarch’s authority is passed from one holder of office to another person w thin the family. All the people living in a country with such a government owe their loyalty directly to the monarch.

A monarchy can be either absolute or constitutional. In an absolute monarchy the monarch exercises supreme power; the monarch’s authority is final and is not limited by any other institution in the land. Some examples of absolute monarchs include Swaziland, Saudi Arabia and Brunei.

A constitutional monarchy is one where the constitution controls the powers and authority of the monarch. A constitutional monarchy can be found in democratic states in which the monarch’s role is largely ceremonial. All the monarchies in Western Europe and Japan are constitutional monarchies.

2.      Aristocracy. The word, “aristocracy” originates from the Greek word “aristo” which means the best. Thus, aristocracy may be defined as the rule of the chosen few or a very small section of the populace marked out by birth, wealth, talent, status and the like.

Aristocracy has however not existed in independent form, but as part of the monarchy especially in European countries. In fact, aristocracy is a form of government that has gone out of fashion, and is not practiced anywhere in these times. It may be surviving in the form of oligarchy in several third world countries.

3.      Oligarchy: Oligarchy is described by Aristotle, (the Greek Philosopher) as a perverted form of aristocracy. This implies that while aristocracy is the rule of the best in society; oligarchy is the rule of the base elements in society i.e. the most devious wealthy and corrupt elements in a society. These elements are often being united by common interests to protect their ill-gotten wealth and fear of the oppressed majority.

Thus instead of gaining their legitimacy to rule through superior merit, privileged birth, social status and wealth as in aristocracy, the oligarch, gains power through deception, corruption and violence.

4.      Theocracies: Theocracies are those states where there is no distinction between religious and state apparatus. The religion dominant in that state controls the government through its clergymen. The laws enforced in the state are religious edicts found in the Holy Scriptures. The ruling class owes allegiance to the religious or spiritual leaders and hold office at their pleasure. Pre-reformation Europe was dominated by theocracies, which owed their allegiance to the pope. In the modem times, the Iranian government is headed by religious leaders, with Ayatollah Khamenei being the spiritual as well as the head of state. During the elections, held in 2004 many candidates who did not tow the line set by the religious authority were disqualified from contesting.

5.      Dictatorship: Dictatorship may be described as a form of government in which an absolute rule of a single person is established by means of force, and where such person is not accountable to any popular institution or possesses absolute powers unlimited in duration and by any other institution.

Modern dictatorship is totalitarian in scope; the dictator controls not only the “government” but the economy, the home, the school, the press, the radio, the cinema, the church, and the very mind and soul of the citizen.

There are several forms of dictatorship such as one party dictatorship and military dictatorship. The most memorable dictatorships are those of Adolf Hitler of Germany (Nazi one party dictatorship), Bennito Mussolini (Fascist one part dictatorship) of Italy and Joseph Stalin’s (communist party dictatorship) in Russia.

a)      Authoritarianism —this is a form of dictatorship whereby those in authority stress obedience to authority personal rule rather than individual liberty.

b)      Autocracy — it implies an absolute sovereign, a monarch ruling without restriction.

c)      Despotism — derived from Greek word “despots” (implying master or Lord). This refers to a regime in which power had been obtained by irregular and unconditional methods and in which the tyrant was not a legitimate or a hereditary monarch.

d)       Totalitarianism — means the concentration of power in the rules and especially in the leader of the party, the total sub-ordination of all organizations to the state, the destruction of all possible opposition groups and terror.

(iii) Democratic Governments

Democracy literally means rule by the people (From the Greek Word Demos “people” and Kratos “Rule”. Pericles defined it as a government in which people are powerful. Aristotle defined it as the rule of the many. Abraham Lincoln, President of the USA, designated democracy as “a government of the people, for the people and by the people. A democratic form of government therefore exists when its rule is based on the consent of the governed. This may be expressed by having elections at set times among other interventions that enhance the people’s will.

Characteristics of Democratic governments

                      i.            Adherence to democratic principles such as protection of fundamental inalienable rights examples of which include freedom of speech and expression, freedom of religion and conscience, freedom of Assembly and the right to equal protection be ore the law.

                    ii.             Being responsible for the welfare of the people

                  iii.            Having a system of checks and balances to ensure that political power is dispersed and decentralized i.e. federalism and separation of power

                  iv.            Have accountability within the state its institutions, political parties and private and civil society organizations.

                    v.            Have ways and means in which citizens can take part in the decision making process, which calls upon the need for a civic culture.

Types of Democratic Governments.

Democratic governments are broadly classified into three categories base on:

                    i.            Type of state: Monarchial or Republican

                  ii.            Dispersal of state power; Unitary or Federal

                iii.            Nature of executive: Presidential or parliamentary

1)      Republican Government-It is government in which the head of state is an elected person, and not like monarchy where leadership is inherited.

2)      Unitary Government: - This is a type of government in which governmental authority is concentrated in a single central body. The central government exercises “centralized” control over all other units. For administrative purposes, the state may be divided into different units or even regions or districts or provinces. However, the authority exercised by these units is derived ‘from the central government and can be taken back.

Merits of Unitary Governments

                                  i.            It is efficient and effective form of government. Being all-powerful, the central government can take any measured it deems necessary without reference to any authority.

                                ii.            It is flexible form of government since it is easy to effect constitutional amendments because it only requires the necessary majority in the National Parliament.

                              iii.             It brings uniformity of administration and legislation

                              iv.             It is less expensive as compared to a federal system, because there is no duality in the field of legislation, administration and adjudication.

                                v.            It is best suited to a small country, marked by a factor of homogeneity in respect of religion, race, language and culture etc.

Demerits of Unitary Government.

                      i.            Since all powers are given to the central government, it may become autocratic to the extent of killing the liberty of the people.

                    ii.            It crushes local initiative. This is because of absence of structures of local self- government that encourages people to take part in their local affairs.

                  iii.            Local affairs are ignored as the central government is overburdened and may lack intricate understanding of local problems as compared to the local people. Majority of Unitary Government are in third world countries where governments do not want to delegate power. This has led disastrous effects as seen in conflicts and skewed distribution of resources. In the West, it has been rejected and federalism adopted.

3)      Federal Government

Federal government is a system of government in which power is divided between the national government and certain local government units (state regional, provincial) each of which is supreme in its own sphere.

Advantages of Federalism

a)      Encourages greater participation: In federalism, more persons can directly and continuously participate in local government than in unitary government .Direct participation by a maximum number of citizens in the governments makes for a healthy democracy and a strong barrier against tyranny.

b)      Local problems get local solutions: Local problem have local solutions. Consequently, the central governments can concentrate on more national issues as the 1sser or the state or regional government solves small problem.

c)      Training ground for leadership in the state/region: Participation in local government either as a public official or as a voter is excelten1 training for voting in National elections and holding national public offices. Most US presidents have got their training from their home states e.g. Ronald Reagan (California), Bill Clinton (Arkansas) and Barrack Obama (Illinois).

Disadvantages of federation:

a)      It is a weak government on account of the division of power between the center and the units and may not stand in times-of national crisis; it faces numerous crises.

b)      A federal system creates a twilight zone that becomes a source of unnecessary complexity and confusion. There is duplicity of legislation, administration, taxation, adjudication and the like.

c)      The process, on constitutional amendment is so rigid and cumbersome that it is virtually impossible. In case of and Switzerland, apart from amendment bring affected in both houses of parliament, it must be ratified by more than half of the states or cantons. On top of that, in the case of Switzerland, it must be subjected to a referendum.

d)      There is constant fear of political disintegration, as happened in the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia.

4. Parliamentary Government

It is the system of government in which the real executive or the Ministry is immediately and legally responsible to the legislature or one branch of it (usually the more popular chamber) for its political policies and acts.

Sir Ivor Jennings describes it as cabinet government, while Richard Crossman refers to it as Prime Ministerial government.

Thug the life of government begins and ends in parliament. The party or coalition of parties that gets majority of members in the legislature forms the’ government, while the other party or parties in minority becomes a loyal opposition.

Most of the governments are parliamentary especially in Europe such as United Kingdom, Canada, Germany, Italy, Sweden, and India.

Parliamentary government is characterized by among others:

                    i.            A nominal head of state-The president or monarch has no real authority, and though all state powers are exercised in his name or authority, the real power as in the council of ministers as lead by the Prime Minister.

                  ii.            Leadership of the prime minister -Though it emphases cabinet (corporate) decision making process in which the prime minister is first among equals —the personality of the prime minister becomes as crucial as that of the president as in presidential  system.

                iii.            Accountability to parliament .The ministers are individuality and collectively responsible to parliament. This means they can continue in office as long as they enjoy the confidence of parliament.

                iv.            Sound and effective opposition. Is a pre-requisite for the effective performance of parliamentary-system of government.

5. Presidential System of Government

It is that system in which the executive (including both the head of state and his ministers) is constitutionally independent of the legislature in respect to the duration of his or their tenure and irresponsible to it for his or their policies. In other words, the president is not a member of legislature.

The chief characteristic of the presidential form of government is the existence of a power executive (called the president) who enjoys a fixed term. His enormous powers virtually remains and his position remains unchallenged as the process of impeachment by which he can be removed is deliberately made very difficult The relative “security” of the president’s tenure, coupled with the enormous powers at his disposal might make the president to be a “dictator” but parliament which is not controlled by the president becomes a cheek of the presidential power in developed democracies.

The most classical representation of presidential system at work is the U. S. A. where the legislature is called Congress. Other countries include South Korea, Taiwan, and Philippines. As alluded, this type of government to work, there should be separation of powers between the executive, judiciary and legislative, otherwise the president can become a dictator.

6. Coalition Government

Coalition government is system in which political parties share positions in the government. This happens when no political party gets an outright majority to form a government on its own after a general election. Coalitions may be forged before or after a general election. Coalitions formed before elections are more stable compared to those formed after. Examples of countries that have had coalition governments include Germany (SDP and Greens), France (De Faulist parties), Kenya, Zimbabwe e.t.c.

7. Government of National Unit

A government of National Unity comprises of different political parties representing different interests, it is formed when there is a national crisis such as breakdown of constitutional machinery. It is usually made of all political parties and as many politically interested groups as possible. Examples of countries that have had governments of national unity are Britain during the Second World War and South Africa, after the end of apartheid.

Theory and practice of Democracy

Definitions

Democracy liter1ly means “rule by the people” (from the Greek words “demos” meaning people and “Krato’ meaning rule. According to Abraham Lincoln democracy is a government of the people, by the people and for the people. Thus, democracy can be defined as government by the people whose supremacy is vested in the people and exercised directly by them or by their elected leader through a free and fair electoral system.

Major theories of democracy

Several theories have been developed based on the question on what democracy ought to be.

These theories include:

                    i.            Minimalism theory

                  ii.            Aggregate theory

                iii.             Deliberative theory

                iv.             Direct theory

1.      Minimalism Theory: This conceptualizes democratic government as one in which citizens give teams of political leaders the right to rule through democratic elections. The theory holds that citizens cannot and should not rule because on most issues, most of the time they have no particular views or their views, are not really intelligent. Joseph Schumpeter (1883-1950) an Austrian economist and a giant in the history of economic thought articulated this theory.

2.       Aggregate Theory: This holds the view that that government should produce laws and policies, which should be as close as possible to the views of the average voter. This view was propounded by Antony in his 1957 book “Ac Economic Theory of Democracy

3.      Deliberative theory: This is based on the Notion that democracy is government by consensus. Deliberative democrats contend that Laws and policies should be one it which leaders and citizens can accept and the political arena should be of which leaden and citizens make arguments, listen and change their mind. The theories (1-3) root for representative democracy.

4.      Direct theory: This theory holds that for democracy to exist, citizen should participate directly not through’ their representatives in making laws and policies. They argue that citizens do not really rule themselves unless; they directly decide laws and policies. Consequently, this theory roots for direct democracy,

Criteria for Democratic elections

a) Must be competitive- Simply permitting the opposition access to the ballot is not enough- Elections in which the opposition is barred from the contacting its rallies and harassed, is not democratic. The ruling party may enjoy the advantages of incumbency but the rules and conduct of the election contest must be fair.

b) ‘Must be periodic-Democratic elections should be periodic. Elected officials are accountable to the people, and they must return to the voters at prescribed intervals to seek their mandate to continue in office. This means that officials in a democracy must accept the risk of being voted out

c) Must be inclusive-A government chosen by a small, exclusive group is not a democracy — no matter how democratic its internal workings may appear. One of the great dramas of democracy throughout history has been the struggle of excluded groups — whether radial, ethnic or religious minorities or women to have full citizenship and without the right to hold office. For instance, in the U.S.A women got a right to vote in 1920. Black Americans however c fly enjoyed Lull voting rights in the Southern United States of America as a result of the Civic rights movement of the 1960s. In 1971, voting age was lowered from 21 years of age to 18.

d) Should be definite-Popularly elected representatives hold the reins of cower as determine by the laws and constitution of the country. They are not simply figureheads’ or symbolic leaders.

2. The rule of law

In a democratic-state there’ should rule based on the law. This can be realized by practicing equality before the law, due process and constitutionality.

a) Equality before e law-Any democratic state there should practice equality before the law to its citizens. Whether rich or poor, ethnic majority or minority, political ally of the state or opponent — all are entitled to equal protection before the law. No one should be above the law, the citizens of a democracy submit to the law because they recognize that, however indirect, that they are submitting to themselves as the makers of the law. When lays are established by the people who then have to obey them, both law and democracy are served

b) Due process: refers to adherence to procedure in the adjudication process or administration of justice. In every society throughput history, those who administer the criminal justice system hold power with the potential for abuse and tyranny. In the name of the state, individuals have been imprisoned often without any formal charges ever being brought. No democratic system can tolerate such abuses. Every state have the power to maintain order and punish criminal acts, but the rules and procedures by which the state enforces its laws must be public and .exp1icit, not secret, arbitrary or subject to political manipulation by the state. For instance,

a) No one’s home should be broken into and searched by the police without a court order showing that there is good cause for such a search. The midnight knock of the secret police has no place in a democracy.

b) No person shall be held under arrest without explicit written charges that specify the alleged violation.

c) Persons charged with crimes should not be held for protracted periods in prison.

d) The authorities are required to grant bail, or conditional release, to the accused pending trial if there is little likelihood that the suspect will flee or commit other crimes.

e) Persons should not be subject to double jeopardy i.e. should not be judged with the same crime twice.

c) Constitutionality-Democratic governments rest on constitutions. The constitution of the country is the supreme law of the lend and all citizens; prime ministers to peasants alike are subject to its provisions. At a minimum, the constitution, which is usually codified in a single written document, establishes the authority of the national government, provides guarantees for fundamental human rights, and sets forth the governments basic operating procedures. But constitutions must be capable of change and adaptation if they are to be relevant to the changing times.

3. Promotion of Human Rights

Any democratic state must promote inalienable human rights among which are life, liberty and pursuit of happiness. Others include freedom of speech and expression, freedom of religion and conscience, freedom of assembly and the right to equal protection before the law. These are the core rights that any democratic governments must uphold. Since they exist independently of the government, these rights cannot be legislated away, nor are they subject to the momentary whim of an electoral majority.  Hence individuals may be free when their government is not.

Freedom of speech and expression is the lifeblood of any democracy. To debate and vote, to  assembly and protect, to worship, to ensure justice for all- those all rely on the unrestricted flow of speech and information. Citizens of a democracy live with the conviction that through open exchange of ideas and opinions, truth will eventually win over falsehood, the values of others will be better understood areas of compromise more clearly defined and the path of progress opened.

Freedom of religion or more profoundly freedom of conscience means that no person should be required to process any religion or other belief against his or her desires. Additionally, no one should be punished or penalized in any way because he or she chooses one religion over another or indeed opts for no religion. The democratic state recognizes that a person’s religious faith is profoundly a personal matter. By reason of long history or tradition, many democratic nations have officially established churches or religions that rely on state support. This fact however, does not relieve the government of the responsibility for protecting the freedom of individuals whose beliefs differ from that of the officially sanctioned religion.

4. Pluralism

Democracy is more than a get of constitutional rules and procedures at determines how government functions. In a democracy, government is only one element coexisting in a social fabric of many and varied institutions, political parties, organizations an. associations. This diversity is called pluralism, and it assumes that the many organized group and institutions in a democratic society do not depend upon the government fur their existence, legitimate and authority. Citizens of democratic societies have the opportunities to join those organizations many of which are involved in public policy.

The right of individuals to associate freely and to organize themselves into different sorts of these organizations is fundamental to democracy. For instance, when people of common interests bond together, their voices can be heard and their chances of influencing the political debate increased. Alexis de Tocqueville, the great 19th Century French political observer wrote “there are no countries in which association are more needed to prevent the despotism of action or the arbitrary power of a prince than those which are democratically constituted

Classification of Myriad groups in democratic societies

a) Interest groups/lobbies: These function primarily to pressure government which regard to particular issues. For instance private interest groups such as business associations, professional groups or labour unions usually have an economic stake in the policies they advocate, although they may also take public positions on issues far outside their area of specialization

(b) Public interest groups: These seek what they perceive to be a public or collective good. Examples are environmental and social welfare organization.

In an authoritarian society all such organization would be controlled, licensed, watched, or otherwise accountable to the government.

c) Political parties: These provide structure and rules for the society’s political debate.  Ensures that there is criticism and alternative policy that brings innovation for instance when NARC come to power CDF fund was introduced.

4. Protest: In a democratic society, citizens have a right to peacefully protest the policies of their government or the actions of other groups with demonstration, marches petitions, boycotts, ‘strikes and other forms of direct citizen action. Direct action is open to everyone in a democracy but traditionally has been used by oppressed disadvantaged or minority groups who feel excluded from other means of influencing government policies.

5. The News Media: The News Media in a democracy is important since to govern is to communicate.

Functions of news media in a democracy.

                    i.            To inform and educate. To make intelligent decisions about public policy, people need accurate, timely and unbiased information.

                  ii.            To act as watchdog over government and other powerful institutions in society. The media hold to a standard of independence and objectivity, (however imperfectly) and so can expose the truth behind the claims of government and hold public official accountable for their actions.

                iii.            Take part in public debate. Through additional or investigate reporting, the media can campaign for specific policies or reforms that they feel should be enacted. They can also serve as forums for organization and individuals to express their opinions through letters to the editors and the printing, of articles, with divergent points of view.

                iv.            Setting the agenda - The media can’t report everything. The news media must choose which issues to report and which ones not.

POWER AND INFLUENCE OVER RESOURCE DISTRIBUTION (Lecture 5)

In this part the concern is with instruments of power, source of power how state power is used in resource distribution and the origin and practice of kleptocratic regimes of Africa.

Power literally means the possibility of imposing one’s will upon the behaviour of other persons. The greater the capacity to impose such a will and achieve the related purpose, the greater the power. Power could be pursued for selfish interests or for the good of the larger community. Those involved in seeking power for the good of all citizens are called statesmen/stateswomen, while those who pursue power for their selfish ends are politicians.

Instruments of power (Tools of power’)

(a) Condign power-This is power that is based on coercion to win submission. Condign power has an ancient and established relationship to physical punishment, detention under variously uncomfortable conditions or to inflicting pain, mutilation and other imaginative torture or death.

For instance in Kenya, those that agitated for multi- party politics were detained under president Moi’s government. Consequently many accepted the single party politics out of fear of detention.

(b) Compensatory power -This is an instrument of power that wins submission by the offer of affirmative of value to individuals submitting In earlier stages of economic development or in rural economies, compensation co in kind, for instance bestowing the right to work on a plot of laud. The same payment could be ma& in the form of money. Compensator power is also won through praise. It offers the individual a reward or payment sufficiently and advantageous or agreeable so that one foregoes pursuit of his own preferences to seek reward instead. The key ward in compensatory power is incentive, tax policy, monetary policy, wage and labour policy etc.

c) Conditioned power. This is the instrument of power exercised in a subtle manner and aims at winning-submission”through’-changing belief, education or social commitment to causes the individual to or of others. The fact of submission is not immediately recognized, as the process of effecting submission is subtle. Explicit conditioning is done through persuasion or education through schools, print or electronic media. Implicit conditioning is done through or dictated by culture.

The submission is considered normal or traditionally correct.

To achieve desired results, these instruments of power need to be mixed. Most African counties have however relied on Condign power is not very much used but conditioned power is the most used instrument.

Source of Power

1. Personality: personality refers to the behavioural and mental characteristics that makes one unique or attracted to other people. It is the quality of physique, mind and speech, moral certainty that gives accessibility to one or more of the instruments of power. Personality has an original and long standing association with condign power particularly physical strength- the commanding figures. However, personality is not solely limited to condign power. It has relationship with compensatory or conditioned power in form of property or organization.

Effective personality wins submissions by persuasion- by cultivating belief, by exercising, leadership. This requires mental resources, precision, charm, seeking honesty, humour, solemnity or even charisma.

2. Property: This source accords an aspect of authority, a certainty of purpose by bending the will of one person to another by straightforward purchase. It is principally associated with compensatory power. Access to property ‘provides the means or wherewitha1 or purchase of submission. So great is the prestige of property that quite without the need for any actual compensation it accords its possessor unlimited and original source of power. What the man of wealth has or b1ieves attracts the belief of others as a matter of course. The rich hence get automatic access to both compensatory and conditioned power.

3. Family backgrounds: One’s family background is mainly a source of conditioned power. The family name may evoke ‘fond memories especially for political leadership that in the minds of others is reassuring. This therefore enables the possessor to obtain willing submission. In America the Kennedy and Bush names are associated with good leadership qualities. in Kenya there have emerged families with strong leadership ties- The Mwendwa’s of Kitui, the Mudavadi’s, the Kenyatta’s, The Moi’s, and the Odingas and so on. In India we have the Nehni — Gandhi dynasty standing tall over any other family name.

4. Intellectual/Academic sources

The mere attainment of high learning in a certain field gives the holder conditioned power and willing submission from others. The power to which a teacher has over the student may also fall under this category, which makes it also be an instrument of compensatory power.

Origin and Practice of Kleptocratic African regimes

To understand the practice of resource allocation/distribution in African states, one should understand the genesis and character of the African presidency. The presidency in Africa is the most significant institution in which national politics anchors. Indeed the African presidency is referred to as the imperial presidency because of its immense power.

The Genesis and character of African presidency

The presidency in Africa has its origins in colonialism which was extremely centralized and authoritarian and which espoused values that were fundamentally the opposite of democratic rule. The implication is that, the colonial administration “acted upon” Africans rather than “consulted” with them. Africans eventually got used to the assumption that a superior person would always exact obedience from his juniors. In the circumstances, Africans including leaders were averse to the pluralistic or democratic system of governance that had just been introduced on the eve of independence: Consequently starting from 1964 in many African countries, multi-party political, systems were abandoned in favour of the one party political system. Constitutional arrangements\that had been put in place to safeguard plural politics at independence were subverted  as African leaders rushe4 for executive presidents with awesome powers- making the presidency the most powerful institution The powerfulness of the presidency is due to the following:

2) The presidency became over all organs of government (The legislative and judiciary) by appointing judges and also being leader of political party whose members are legislators.

3) In moat African countries the holder of the presidency is immune to the legal process as long as (he) remains in office and this is interpreted to mean the president is above the law.

4) The single party system also conferred the holder of office with indefinite continuity in office. For instance in Tunisia and Malawi there were constitutional provisions conferring life tenure to the president.

5) Even in multi- party, presidents powers have not been trimmed hence agitation for a new constitution.

6) The personalization of power. The notion of personal rule can be defined as the antithesis of institutional rule in that the exercise of political power is based not on institutions but on individual personalities. In this ease constitutional rules and conventions that regulate or limit those occupying presidential office are no adhered to by those in power instead the office-holder is permitted a high degree of discretion to exercise personal authority and power to satisfy self-interest rather than the formal grants of power.

According to Lasswell (l958), politics has to do with “who gets what, when and how”. In Europe, politics is institutional based. In African countries as noted, a statesman is a personal ruler. Within this context in Africa, the allocation and distribution of resources is not done as per the constitution that defines the office. Consequently, allocation of resources is never predictable, as it does sot follow any established and regularized principle of conduct. Instead of allocating resources on the bases of economic criteria, merit or basic needs approach, they are instead allocated on the grounds of such subjective criteria as regionalism, ethnic consideration, political loyalty and the disposition of the ruler himself. Furthermore, in the circumstances that are devoid of effective political institutions, state resources remain at the disposal of the incumbent The Incumbents use those resources to perpetuate themselves in power by skewing their allocation in favour of their Kinsfolk supporters, sycophants, hangers-on e.t.c, in a manner that effectively amounts to pillaging state resources to purchase political loyalty.

Examples

At independence in 1962, Gregoire Kayibanda, the new political leader, a Hutu from Central Rwanda embarked on a regionally oriented approach towards distribution of both symbolic and material resources of the state. In high schools, post-secondary institutions and salaried jobs, among others, Tutsi’s were sidelined. This action provoked a military coup in 1973 that propelled Major General Juvenal Habyarirnana from North Rwanda to power. But Habyarimana never learned from the mistakes of his predecessor and instead also channeled the resources towards north Rwanda more than anywhere else. He also sidelined the Tutsi’s politically and in the employment in civil service.

In Kenya, Nasongo Wanjala (2000) and Muigai (1995) have noted that in the period 1963-1978, when Kenyatta was the president, resources were allocated in a manner that clearly favoured the Kikuyu, particularly, Kiambu district where more than a half of the country’s development resources were channeled to the same Nasongo (2000) points out that did the president Moi, did the same. The curious logic of this scenario in Kenya is that “that ethnic group ate when their own was in power and it or turn to eat given that our own is in state house”. The problem of corruptions has also been acute is Mobutu Sese Seko of Zaire, and Nigeria under the various military and civilian Rulers (e.g. (Gen Abacha).

TOPIC 3 SOCIETY AND SOCIAL STRATIFICATION (Lecture 6)

      SOCIETY.

Simply, it means a community. It is concerned about people i.e. people entered. It’s a concept used to define human organization. Society is therefore a group of people with particular organizations and shared custom’s, laws, interests aims e.t.c.

Families come to form a society. Families come together to meet various interests within a society, interests which cannot be fully met at individual or family levels. This we get economic political and social societies or societies with all the above combined. It’s also within the society that most people find meaning, for otherwise without societal dynamics life will be meaningless. It’s within the society that we seek higher needs and self actualization.

TYPES OF SOCIETY.

There are several types of societies varying from simple to complex, from legal to illegal (underground). Our concern here is the larger and known society, our country. Traditionally Kenyans have belonged to various ethnic groups. It is to these ethnic hegemonies that different people belong and owe their allegiance. For a society to withstand the test of time it should be able to have ways and means of regulating itself internally setting up sanctions, conditions and penalties that can be imposed upon those who violate laws and rules. A society should preserve its institutions for posterity. It should check cultural infiltrations that cm lead to imbalances and misunderstandings.

SOCIAL STEATIFICATION

This is the hierarchical ordering of people in a society differentiated according to their power, prestige and privilege. The hierarchy comes about due to what people desire and aspire to and value as scarce. They have to be competed for and in the process they are not shared or distributed equally. Wealth, power, prestige and privilege are obvious among such things.

·         A person’s wealth, measured in capital and income, puts him in position to acquire the goods and services he wants.

·         Power gives a person the .i1ity to common and the actions of others ad to have his way in difficult situation.

·         Prestige represents a person standing in society which determines to what extent others look up to him with respect or look down on him.

·         Family, this can put one in a particular class depending on how the family you come from is endowed with power and wealth.

·         Privilege refers to the advantageous immunities or rights a person enjoys in society.

In any society the above desirable things constitutes a stratum layer.

SYSTEMS OF SOCIAL STRATIFICATEON.

Systems of social stratification are influenced by social mobility. There are 2 main types of social mobility. However there are several others. Some systems of social stratification are flexible i.e. Individuals can move up and down the hierarchical order with relative case.

Types of social Mobility.

1.      Open system.

2.      Closed system.

      Others.

3.      Class system.

4.      Elite system.

1. Open system

This type allows social mobility though the degree of mobility may differ from place to place. For example Britain is generally considered to be less open than the USA. Though recent studies tend to indicate that the differences in this regard are sometimes exaggerated.

2. Closed system.

Social mobility is virtually or totally impossible. For example, the caste system in India. In this system the society is stratified into occupational groups between whom marriages are forbidden.

Each of the groups, therefore, maintains its purity through endogamy e.g.

Caste system found in India.

1.      Brahmins- Religious leaders [priests]

2.      Kshatriyas- landowners, military leaders

3.      Vaishyas- Farmers, merchants [traders]

4.      Sutra- unclean occupation [disposing of corpses]

5.      Pariahs- Labourers.

3. Class system

This is different from in that it allows mobility and does not involve endogamy. Max Weber [German sociologist] defines class as “a group of people who have the same typical chance for the supply of goods, external living conditions, and personal life experiences in so far as this chance is determined by the power to dispose of goods or skills for the sake of income in a given economic order. In his view, class is considered in reference to the possession or non- possession of wealth, power and prestige. [That’s why societies in Western Europe and North America are described as class societies]. In class system, its usual families not individual who are assign the labels associated with the levels of strata to which they belong.

4. Elites.

These are people who have managed to rise noticeably above the rest of the population in terms of wealth, power prestige and privilege. Usually they are defined in terms of S.F Nadel’s Criteria as;

1.      A definable, corporate group which is exclusive and aware of its status and group character, but is not necessarily fully organized or closed to new members.

2.      Having a general superiority complex based on special skills or talents acquired or inherited) which is rewarded by deference and can be at least imitated.

TOPIC 4: NATION AND NATIONALISM (Lecture 7)

The word “nation” is derived from a Latin word “nation” which denote the idea of common birth or descent A nation can therefore be said to be a large grouping of people bound together by a common historical origin, the same ancestors-common experiences, language and culture practice. Anderson argues that a nation is an imagined political community. It is imagined a both limited and sovereign.

                    i.            It is imagined because most members of even a small Nation never meet  one another or hear another yet they feel they belong to that particular one community

                  ii.            It is limited in the sense that nations include some people who are regarded as belonging, while excluding others as outsiders. No nation claims to include the whole community.

It is sovereign because nationalism seeks o celebrates independence and self government for a group of people.

David McCrone in the Sociology of Nationalism (I998) has given the following information about Nationalism. In distinguishing nation from state, McCrone points on that nation and state are often seen as one and the same as in the term nation- state but this is not always the case. The state is essentially a political and administrative unit but people may eel a sense of national identity which does not coincide with political boundaries.

In modern times, the concept nation has a significance of its own. Identified, with the word “nationality”, the term “nation” signifies the existence of a common political consciousness.

Nationality is a collective name to that complex of psychological and cultural factors which furnish the cohesive principle’ uniting a nation. Nationality is therefore a sentiment of “oneness” that unites the people of a pafi1ar kind and thus differentiates theist from others who do not share similar feelings and sentiments. Stressed here is the existence of a common political consciousness that procreates the tendency of distinct identity of a people.

Characteristics of a Nation (state)

Common History- people of a particular nation are conscious of being part of a continuous historical past. This is popularized by myth., legend and folklore. For example, the Jews as a nation trace their common history in the creation stories in the Bible. For Kenya, we have a shared common colonial history, though the different ethnic groups may have varying histories of their own. The colonial experience and the struggle for independence were an important factor in creation of a sense of nationalism and nationhood in Kenya. As a way of fostering a shared identity, nations also erect national monuments, totems and symbols.

Common Language -people of the same nation usually have the same language either a verncu1ar common to all or a lingua franca like Kiswahili in Tanzania and Kenya, French in France, Belgium, Rwanda & Cote D’Voire, Spanish in most Latin American countries and English in almost all the commonwealth countries. A common language helps to improve nationhood when it is used to bridge ethnic and cultural differences arid to promote integration ethnic groups. This increases nationality identity and national pride as has happened with Kiswahili in Tanzania.

Common Culture most citizens in a nation conduct their lives according to their manner generally accepted and approved in their own society (nation). Age-old tradition, rites and rituals are called upon to create a sense of nationalism and patriotism as elements of nationhood. Some of the cultural symbols include dressing habits, food, music and cinema and so on.

A definite Territory-though there are some nations without a definite territory of their own such as the Palestine and the Jews before 1948, territory is one of the foundations of a nation. Each of the world’s nations is located in particular areas of the earth’s surface and has definite and generally recognized boundaries which are not supposed to overlap the area of another nation. Not only does each nation occupy and govern a particular territory, but most of its citizens to some extent psychologically identity with it. They have affection for its physical characteristics-its rivers, lakes, mountains and so on.

Some nationalities are straddled along several countries and lack a geographical contiguity or political identity. The Kurds lack a state of their own, and instead are thinly spread in Iraq, Iran, Turkey and Syria.

Government. Each nation usually has a government which sees to it that its machinery is in place functioning.

Sovereignty: for a nation to be said to be one, it must be sovereign, otherwise it will be constituted as a mere entity or appendage of a larger nation, without sovereignty, it may even be seen as a colony, a protectorate. It must be independent in as far as it relates to other nations. It must be recognized by supra-national organizations such a the United Nations African union etc.,

The concept, Objectives and Practice of Nationalism

Definition of Nationalism

The oxford learner’s dictionary defines nationalisms as “the devotion to he interests of one’s nation and desire for its advancement and independence”

The Encyclopedia of social sciences sees nationalism as the deepest sentiment for affiliation and common good for the nation-state for which maximum sacrifices can be made by people.

It may be said to be a state of mind in which the individual feels that every one owes his supreme secular loyalty to the nation-state. Eugene Kamenica and David in their book on nationalism both view nationalism as originating in ethno-centric feelings, the idea that one’s ethnicity. or community is the best vis-à-vis others and striving to make sure within the ,possible means that it remains so.

Modem nationalism is associated with the evolution of modem states. It has both negative and positive connotations. In the 19th century Europe, it was the spirit behind the evolution of many nation-states, especially after the era of Napoleon Bonaparte and the Napoleonic wars. The rise of the French Republic, United Germany, Australia, Hungary, Poland, Italy, Turkey (formally Ottoman Empire) Greece, Cyprus, Spain and Portugal among others, were all creations of European Nationalism, seen as positive in the eyes of many Europeans.

In the 20” century Africa, Europeans viewed the rising African nationalism as a negative move, whereas it was very positive to the Africans and Pan-Africanists as it responsible for the present states in Africa.

Nationalism began to appear in Africa and Asia after the WWI. It produced such leaders as Kamal Atatuk in Turkey, Said Pasha Zaghul in Egypt, Ibn Saud in the Arabian Peninsula, Mahatma Gandhi in India, Dr. San Yat-Sen in china, Jomo Kenyatta in Kenya, Walter Sisulu in South Africa and so on.

Types of Nationalism

McCrone broadly distinguishes four types of Nationalism

Western society Nationalism

This type of nationalism is related to the development of the nation state in western society. Examples of such states include the United Kingdom, France and the USA. This type of nation state began to emerge with the decline of dominant religious thinking in the 18th century and a ‘greater acceptance of secular authority. It is also connected with the breakup of empires, particularly the Austrian, Ottoman and Russian empires.

Some sociologists believe that existing ethnic divisions were importing in providing a starting point for the development of these nation states. McCrone however argues that ethnicity alone was not enough to create a modem nation state. What is important is that ethnic nationalism was converted into civic nationalism (united by Common citizenship rather than ethnicity).

Nationalism in colonies & post colonial societies.

This is the second type of nationalism which developed in the colonies and post colonial societies. This occurred from around the mid 20^th century and culminated in independence. In those societies, those opposed to colonial rule would appeal to a national identity in trying to mobilize opposition to colonial powers such as Britain and France.

Anti- colonial movements often advocated and achieved secular states. However with economic failure of some of the states, nationalism in some colonial societies has become associated with ethnicity and religion. In African and other post colonial societies people have ambiguous identities with nationality, religion and ethnicity all making claims on their loyalty.

 e.g.

In a country like Algeria, the nationality movement which achieved independence made little appeal to religions or ethnicity. However when they failed to deliver the economic social and cultural liberation, that they promised then secular liberation is outflanked by counter- risings which mobilized culture and religion. That is where there is conflict in Algeria.

In Kenya, the failure of the secular state to provide economic stability has threatened nationality as an identity. Increasingly in Kenya there is manifested ethnic based politics.

 (iii) Neo-Nationalism

MacCrone uses the term neo-nationalism to refer to Nationalist independence movements in western stateless societies such as the Basque Country, Scotland and Quebec.

This Nationalism seems to go against the idea that assumed that the 19th century saw the successful establishment of distinct nations and that regional differences within nation stales would tend to disappear as time progressed. MacCrone argues that neo- nationalism develops when a set of circumstances coincide.

It usually develops ii areas with a strong civil society (e.g. groups championing for greater rights in society. In Kenya an example is the Ogiek Welfare Society which champions the rights of the Ogiek.

Tends to develop in regions with string economies rather than weak ones. For instance it is noticeable that Scottish nationalism was given a boost by the discovery of North Sea oil.

Also tends todeve1op in areas where people have multiple national identities. For instance Scottish sometimes identify’ themselves as British, Quebec citizens as Canadians. In Kenya one can see that since we have multiple identities such kind of nationalism can easily spring up.

 Neo- nationalism is also associated with new parties. Such parties like the Scottish national party (SNP), seek greater autonomy short of independence.

Finally neo- nationalism tends to occur in Nation states which are part of larger supra -national organizations such as the European Union or the North American Free Trade Association (NAFTA) of which Canada is a member. The explanation for this is this: if the British economy is closely integrated with the European economy there seems less for Scotland to lose by becoming independent from the rest of Britain. An independent Scotland within EU appears to be a less risky proposition than a Scotland which simply goes it alone. Thus the closer links between societies involved in globalization actually create the space in which regional identities and independence movement can develop.

MeCrone believes that neo- nationalism is largely civic rather than ethnic in nature.

iv) Post communist nationalism

This is nationalism that occurred after the collapse of communist in the USSR and Eastern Europe. As a result of nationalism in these counties that were previously communist the following changes occurred:-

a)      Some states disappeared e.g. Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia). Czechoslovakia was divided into the Czech Republic and Slovakia.

b)      East and West Germany were fiisedt5er

c)      Countries such as Poland Latha, Lithuania and Estonia regained the independence

d)      New states such as Ukraine, Georgia and central Asian republics emerged out of what had been the Soviet Union.

The following two reasons are given for this nationalism after the demise on communism

(ii) This suggests that deep seated historic ethnic divisions were held it check by totalitarian ethnic regimes. When communism thawed cut and opposition became possible, traditional rivalries between ethnic groups reappeared.

The other explanation is that politicians simply encouraged nationalist sentiments in order to secure popular support for their own leadership. For example, Slobodan Milosevic used the appeal of Serbian nationalism to increase his personal support.

Objectives of Nationalism

For Imperialism: there is no doubt that most of the European imperialists who explored e rest of e world did so with a lot of vested imperialistic zeal whose guiding spirit was nationalism. They wanted to conquer as much colonies for their nation states in order to control the world’s resources, for the benefit of the nations.

For Nation or state formation: in 18” and I9 century Europe and 20th century Africa and Asia, nationalism was used to create and build nation-states It was used to rally people together to form functional state infrastructures it thus led to creation of states.

To fight foreign Rule or Domination: in the l9 century Europe Napoleon Bonaparte used his immense power and resources to spread the French hegemony all over Europe. Because of the iron hand and ruthless methods he used in doing so the other peoples of Europe were awakened into their own feelings of nationalism. When he was defeated many nations sprung up from his continental acquisitions.

In Africa, the over 60 years of European rule in many parts made many people to realize their position as a colonized people and their vulnerability unless they fought off and removed the burden of colonialism.

This witnessed the rise of pan-Africanism mainly by the blacks in the Diaspora and in Africa.

Some of the earliest pan-Africanists included George Padmore, Marcus Garvey, W.E.B. Dubois, and an emergent elite in Africa especially political elites led by Kwame Nkururna, Jomo Kenyatta, Nandi Azikwe, Abubakar Tafawa Balew’a Omar Bongo, Felix Houphuc Boigny,Ahmadu Bello, Ahmed Ben Bella, Patrick L.Lumumba, Leopold Sear Sengoh, Sekou Toure, Quet Masire, Sir Sereste Khama, Augustino Nato, Keneth Kaunda, Nelson Mandela, Julius Nyerere and so on.

(iii) Enables technical assistance through high- level” manpower transfers.

(iv) That the amount of aid should be determined by the recipient country’s ‘absorptive ‘capacity’. I.e. the capacity for the recipient country to utilize the aid in the manner desired by the donor country.

3) Humanitarian reason: some developed countries such as such as Sweden, Norway and Canada, are motivated by humanitarian motives that seeks to better and mitigate the effects of disasters in developing countries.

4) Security Issues: Developed countries increasingly give foreign aid out of their interest to fight global security threats such as terrorism. The United States of America is at the forefront for giving this kind of aid.

5) To Reduce Environmental Degradation: increasingly environmental degradation is threatening global sustainable development. Consequently developed countries are giving aid to developed countries to conserve forest ecosystems like Aberdare in central Kenya to preserve waters that flow from that area.

6) Guilt feelings e.g. due to slavery.

Why developing countries accept forego Aid

1.      A Resource Gap: - they help fill, the resource gap between or desired investment and locally mobilize services.

2.      Foreign exchange Gap: - they fill the gap between targeted foreign exchange requirements and those derived from net export earnings.

3.      Local tax Gap: - they fill the gap between targeted government tax revenues and locally raised taxes.

4.      Management Gap: foreign aid in terms of personnel helps to fill a yawning gap in management skills and technical know how, through training and, providing the locals the opportunity to learn through experience while in employment. Such transfers of knowledge, skills and technology are assumed to be both desirable and productive for the recipient nations.

5.       Humanitarian issues like drought and famine: floods etc farce countries to request for aid.