EBT 111: RESEARCH METHODS IN ETHNOBOTANY
COURSE OUTLINE
Introduction to research approaches in Applied
Ethnobotany: different levels of participation; community involvement in
definition of issues; collection and analysis of information and data; use of
results. Attitudes and behavior of applied ethnobotanists. Identifying research
sites and initial research questions. Preparation for field work: background
reading; consultations with experts and agencies; finding resources for
research. Composition of ethnobotanical teams. Introduction to communities.
Stakeholder analysis. Participatory appraisals of plant resources: users and
uses. Working with local specialists in plant resources. Data analysis and writing up results. Using
results: their return to communities; follow-up actions; community education
and training. Identification of conflicts and resolution of disputes.
Learning outcomes:
After successful completion of
this course students are expected to:
·
Collect (ethno-) botanical specimens;
·
Use the common tools of qualitative and quantitative
ethnobotany;
·
Carry out a small research project that integrates
ethnobotanical data gathering, specimen collection, quantitative analysis and
presentation
REFERENCES
1. Cunningham, A.B., 2001. Applied Ethnobotany. People, Wild
Plant Use and
Conservation.
WWF, UNESCO, Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew. Earthscan
Publications,
London and Sterling
2. Höft,
M., Barik, S.K., Lyke, A.M. 1999. Quantitative ethnobotany. Applications of multivariate and
statistical analyses in ethnobotany. People and Plants working paper 6. UNESCO,
Paris. unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0011/001189/118948E.pdf Accessed July 2006
3. Martin, G.J. 1995. Ethnobotany. A “People and
Plants” Conservation Manual. World Wide Fund for Nature. Chapman & Hall,
London
4. Plant Conservation: An
Ecosystem Approach By Alan Charles Hamilton, Patrick Hamilton
5. Returning
results: community and environmental education. Gary J. Martin and Alison L.
Hoare, editors, March 1997. (not available)
6. Vogl, C. R. Vogl-Lukasser, B. and Puri, R. (2004) Tools and Methods
for data
collection in ethnobotanical studies of homegardens. Field
Methodes16 (3): pp. 285-306.
LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION
BRIEF
BACKGROUND OF ETHNOBOTANY
Ethnobotany refers to the field of study that examines the
interaction between human societies and the plant kingdom, especially how
indigenous peoples perceive, manage, and utilize the plants around them. Like most fields of studies, ethnobotany is
multidisciplinary in nature, involving not only scientists from the fields of
anthropology, botany, forestry, and other related sciences but also community
members, especially their herbalists, and support organizations.
At present, ethnobotanical documentation is urgently needed because
ethnobotanical knowledge is rapidly vanishing. It is vanishing because of plant
extinction and disappearance of traditional cultures. As plant diversity declines
due to human-induced environmental changes, knowledge about plants also
declines. The problem of declining biodiversity is compounded by the problem of
cultural alienation/distancing ourselves from our culture. Cultural alienation
is the result of ethnic discrimination, formal education, and exposure to mass
media. Paradoxically/expectantly, it is the immigrant population that
discriminates the indigenous population. The indigenous population would either
withdraw by retreating into the inaccessible mountains or totally blend in with
the immigrant population by hiding their ethnic identity.
With children being increasingly drawn into the mainstream society,
there is great danger that the oral ethnobotanical knowledge would no longer be
passed on to the next generation and would disappear when the knowledge holders
die. The disappearance of ethnobotanical knowledge would be a great loss not
only to the indigenous communities but also to humanity. Ethnobotanical
knowledge provides the key to largely untapped biological resources to solve many problems facing humanity today. Ethnobotanical
knowledge is an important resource for the community that could be tapped to rejuvenate
agriculture, increase livelihood options, improve health and raise some sense of
cultural pride of the community.
Thus, ethnobotanical documentation can be seen as a way to preserve
the oral ethnobotanical knowledge and a way to make it available for the
present and future generations. Documentation also provides the indigenous community
an opportunity to reflect on the conservation status of biodiversity in their
ancestral domain. Hence, documenting knowledge generates new knowledge. This is
also a way to generate culturally relevant learning materials for the
functional literacy programs of the indigenous community.
Ethnobotany (from "ethno" -
study of culture and "botany" - study of plants) is the scientific
study of the relationships that exist between people and plants.
Ethnobotanist – a scientist who has specialized in the field of
ethnobotany.
The aim of ethnobotanists is to reliably document, describe and explain
complex relationships between cultures and (uses of) plants: focusing, primarily,
on
(i)
How
plants are used,
(ii) Managed and
(iii) Perceived across human societies (e.g. as
foods; as medicines; in divination; in cosmetics; in dyeing; as textiles; in
construction; as tools; as currency; as clothing; in literature; in rituals;
and in social life.)
The field of ethnobotany requires a variety of skills:
(i)
Botanical training - for the identification and preservation
of plant specimens;
(ii)
Anthropological training - to understand the cultural concepts
around the perception of plants;
(iii)
Linguistic training - at least enough to transcribe local
terms and understand native morphology, syntax, and semantics.
·
Ethnobotany
has been used as a means of extracting
knowledge of the uses of plants, especially as medicines, from communities, with the aim of developing
new commercial products elsewhere. Its application can lead to a strengthening of cultural diversity and
conservation, greater sustainability
in the exploitation of plant resources, and the development of new plant products.
Definitions
(a)
Ethnobotany - was a term first suggested by
John Harshberger in 1896 to delimit a specific field of botany and describe
plant uses. It was defined as discipline concerned with the interactions
between people and plants.
The
main tasks of applied ethnobotany are:
• Conservation of plant species
- including varieties of crops - and other forms of biological diversity.
• Botanical inventories and
assessments of the conservation status of species.
• Sustainability in supplies of
wild plant resources, including of non-timber products.
• Enhanced food security,
nutrition and healthcare.
• Preservation, recovery and
diffusion of local botanical knowledge and wisdom.
• Identification and development
of new economic products from plants, for instance crafts, foods, herbal
medicines and horticultural plants.
• Contributions to new drug
development among others
(b)
Traditional
(Ecological) Knowledge or folk knowledge - According to the Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD), “traditional knowledge refers to the knowledge,
innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities around the world
(i.e. what local people know about the natural environment). There are many definitions for traditional
ecological knowledge (also known as Traditional
Environmental Knowledge). However, such knowledge is:
(i)
linked
to a specific place, culture or society;
(ii)
it
is dynamic in nature;
(iii)
it
belongs to groups of people who live in close contact with natural systems and
(iv)
it
contrasts with “modern” or “Western formal scientific” knowledge”.
(c)
Scientific knowledge - is the information derived
from research.
Traditional knowledge is of
great importance to those who depend on it in their daily lives as well as to
the Western society for example:-
(i)
Many
plant-based medicines and cosmetics are derived from traditional knowledge and
other articles include agricultural and non-timber forest products.
(ii)
Traditional
ecological knowledge can also help to achieve a sustainable development: Most
indigenous and local communities are situated in areas where the vast majority
of the world's plant genetic resources are found. Many species have been
cultivated and used in a sustainable way for thousands of years. The skills and
techniques of these indigenous and local communities provide valuable
information to the global community and can be a useful model for biodiversity
policies.
RESEARCH APPROACHES
Research Methodology and Design
Before
you carry out any ethnobotanical research:
-
First define the goals of the
project (i.e. what you want to achieve) before selecting the approach which
best suits the interests, budget and schedule.
-
Most methods used in ethnobotanical
studies are time-consuming and can be expensive. Several trips to the field may
be costly, but usually the most successful projects are those which cover
several seasons and continue for a number of years.
-
Long-term projects allow working with local people to record ecological
knowledge in a variety of contexts, including ritual occasions and seasonal
farming activities.
-
But sometimes it is not possible to conduct a long-term project. In these cases
Rapid Ethnobotanical Appraisal/study can be used -
(a) Rapid Ethnobotanical Appraisal
(study)
The techniques are conducted in
a short time without requiring expensive tools because participants seek a sketch
of local conditions rather than an in-depth-study.
A small group of local
people is selected and interviewed qualitatively about a wide range of topics
in a semi-structured way. A wide range of topics may be covered in a
preliminary way, allowing a comprehensive view of how the community acts as a
whole; (e.g. making a preliminary list of biological resources at sites
that have been set aside as protected areas or simply conducting an initial
ethnobotanical inventory in several communities in order to decide where it
would be most interesting to carry out long-term research). Measurements are
qualitative and few statistical tools are used in the interpretation of the
results. The techniques are highly visual and are carried out by community
members, often in collaboration with the researcher.
However there are many faults
with studies that only last a few days e.g.
·
They
do not allow a deep working relationship to develop between an ethnobotanists
and the community
·
Careful
documentation of the cultural and biological aspects of local knowledge is not
possible since there is little time to make voucher collections, transcribe
local names or talk with a range of informants
·
Short
time visits do not permit local people to learn rigorous ethnobotanical methods
that would allow them to manage more effectively resources in their own
communities.
i.
Ethnobotanical
fieldwork requires researchers to collaborate with government
officials,
scientists, and local people.
ii.
In
most countries, researchers must obtain official
permits before conducting any research, especially when conducting research
in indigenous communities.
iii.
Fieldworkers should also obtain permission from community members before initiating research activities. Researchers
need to clearly and honestly discuss their goals, methodology and consequences
of the research to local communities.
iv Another important point is the selection of local informants. A common mistake is
assuming that one is dealing with culturally homogeneous groups. There is often
a considerable degree of intracultural variation and specialization. This must
be taken into account when selecting informants.
v.
Researchers
are also expected to compensate informants and communities with a fair amount
of money and/ or through gifts and services.
vi.
The
intellectual property rights regarding the ecological knowledge of the
indigenous people must be taken into consideration.
Preparation
for Field Work (Rapid Ethnobotanical Appraisal)
General points to keep in mind
when planning a rapid ethnobotanical assessment
- Obtain
secondary information
– maps, floras, faunas, vegetation analysis, census statistics, and
reports on forest use to gain a preliminary idea of the land, the people
and the conservation issues in the region. Consult the maps to select the
specific site and villages that you will visit. Have local people
participate in the collection of these secondary sources of information,
whether in their community or in nearby government offices or
universities.
- Form
a multidisciplinary team. Make prior contact with a linguistic familiar with the local language, a botanist who knows the flora, an anthropologist who has studied
local people’s classification and management of the environment and other
researchers who have worked in the region. These preliminary consultations
should be made by a small committee that includes local people when
possible.
- Ensure
community participation. Seek Full Corporation and permission of local
authorities before starting fieldwork. Ask them to recommend several local
people, including specialist resource users, who can work with the
assessment team. A general presentation can be made in the community to
explain the goals of the appraisal, particularly if families will be
participating.
- Do
everything systematically. The appraisal should be done systematically so that
others who wish to conduct a more thorough study consult your results and
add to them. This includes a map of sites that you visit, recording the
names of all local people who participate in the exercise, identifying the
species encountered and recording the semi-structured interviews that are
carried out. The conclusions of the appraisal, together with any drawings,
charts or graphics created during the stay, should also be presented in a
final report.
(b)
Planning a long term project
After a rapid appraisal has been
carried out, the research may be continued for a few weeks, season or several
years during which more rigorous research methods may be applied. Regardless of
the special techniques chosen and of the scope of the research, minimum
standards of ethnobotanical documentation should be considered as follows:
- Specimens of all species represented
in the study must be collected, identified and deposited in a herbarium,
zoological museum, seed bank or equivalent facility. All specimens should
be accompanied by label detailing the scientific name, locality,
description, collector and number of collection as well as other
information.
- All
local categories of plants should be identified and information collected
on the distribution, use and management of the corresponding botanical
species. This cultural information should be confirmed in discussions with
numerous community members who represent the social diversity of the community
where you are studying – rich and poor, young and old, men and women etc.
The age, educational background, occupation, and other personal data
should be recorded for each local person who participates in the project.
- All
local plant names and other key terms must be accurately transcribed using
a widely accepted local writing system. The names may be recorded on tape
by several native speakers so that other researchers can review the
accuracy of the transcriptions.
- Each
plant population sampled for analysis in a laboratory or research centre
should be documented by a voucher specimen. The material used for analysis
must be prepared in a standard way in the field, appropriate for the tests
that will be carried out.
- The
local perception and classification of diverse aspects of the natural
environment should be recorded, including concepts of vegetation
communities, soil types, geographical landmarks, climate zones and
seasons.
- The
economic value of biological resources should be estimated. You may record
the price and availability of plant and animal products sold in rural
marketplaces, assess the time people spend in harvesting the resources and
estimate the cost of transporting the goods to where they can be sold.
Describing
the field site
Table 1 Categories for
describing the land, people and conservation status of a research site
______________________________________________________
Land
Geographical location and map
Surface area in km2
Longitude and latitude
Geological information
Elevation range
Major geographical landmarks
Soil types
Climatic zones and seasons
Vegetation types and seasonal
successional stages
People
Population size and distribution
Language(s) spoken
Ethnic affiliation(s)
History of settlement
Major social groups or classes Productive
activities
Subsistence and commercial crops
System of land tenure
Rates of migration
Conservation
status
Size and status of protected
areas
Transportation infrastructure
Natural and human-caused
disasters
Colonization
Agriculture
Logging
Alternative land-use schemes
Nature tourism
Extractivism (getting hold of natural
resources e.g. oil, gas, precious metals.
____________________________________________
·
When
you decide to carry out a long-term research you should describe the land,
local people and conservation status of the region where you will be working.
·
The
geographical location of the research site should be stated, giving the
country, state, province, municipality etc. Citing the surface area in km2
aids in comparison with other research sites. Reporting the longitudinal and
latitudinal coordinates helps other researchers find the area on a
topographical map.
·
The
history of the geological formation of the land should be described as well as
the topography, soil types and geographical landmarks (mountains, caves etc).
·
Delineate
the major climatic zones, pointing out seasonal fluctuations in temperature and
precipitation. Characterize the floristic and faunistic regions and the major
types of vegetation that cover the land, including the various stages of
succession observable in the study site.
·
State
the size of the human population and give information on its geographical and
demographic distribution (e.g. major settlements and where they are located,
number of men and women, number of people per household etc). Record the
language they speak, levels of literacy and formal education. Describe their
ethnicity and give approximate population of each ethnic group.
·
After
describing the land and the local inhabitants, characterize the conservation
status of the region. Give the number
and size of all areas that are officially protected, such as national or buffer
zones. Note any traditional system of protected areas that are maintained by
local people.
·
Indicate
current threats to both protected and unprotected sites. Describe natural and
human-caused disturbances that affect broad areas in the region, including
fires, floods, erosion and long-range sources of pollution such as fertilizer
runoff, pesticides and acid rain.
·
Report
the extent of transportation infrastructure – roads, airstrips – and how it
affects the ease of access to natural areas.
·
Characterize
demographic trends and their impact on natural resources and vegetation: Is
there large-scale colonization driven, driven by resettlement and immigration
of people from another region?; Are these colonists destroying primary
forests/vegetation?
·
Assess
the ecological damage caused by subsistence commercial agriculture, giving
special attention to activities which result in large-scale clearing of the
vegetation, such as cattle-raising, growing of export crops in plantations and
shifting cultivation. Delimit the areas where logging is practised and
characterise the species that are targeted.
·
Calculate
the amount of each that is harvested and determine who is processing and
profiting from the timber (community based sawmills, private pulp mills and so
on).
·
Record
other activities which threaten large tracts of land, such as mining and
hydroelectric projects. If non-timber forest products are being extracted from
the region, state who is doing the collecting (local people, scientific expeditions,
commercial enterprises etc.) the species affected and the approximate amount of
material that is being removed.