NRM 121: EDUCATION, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN DEVELOPMENT

NRM 121: EDUCATION, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN DEVELOPMENT (3 UNITS)-SECOND

·         Concepts(REASONING BEHIND AN IDEA) and philosophies(fundamental nature of knowledge, reality, and existence, especially when considered as an academic discipline.) of education, science, technology, society and development

·         Pure and applied research, the process of research-research proposals, research activities, research reports

·         Research ethics and malpractices; innovation, intellectual property and intellectual property rights

·         Appropriate technology and technology transfer

·         Role of government in research, science and technology development

·         Sustainable development

·         Education for sustainable development

·         Development theories

·         Natural resources and their derivatives in economic development

·         Natural resources and resource issues in sustainable development

·         Sustainability principles

·         Sustainability and the environment

·         Integrating cross-disciplinary Approaches to Achieve the millennium Development Goals

·         Community participation in development

According to some learned people, the word "Education" has been derived from the Latin term "Educatum" which means the act of teaching or training. A group of educationists say that it has come from another Latin word "Educare" which means "to bring up" or "to raise".
According to a few others, the word "Education" has originated from another Latin term "Educere" which means "to lead forth" or "to come out". All these meanings indicate that education seeks to nourish the good qualities in man.
Educating an individual we attempt to give him some desirable knowledge, understanding, skills, interests, attitudes and critical 'thinking. That is, he acquires knowledge of history, geography, arithmetic, languages and sciences.
Definitions of Education:
The Concepts of Education as given by prominent Indian educationists are as follows.
Principles of Education and School Organization;
1. Rigved: "Education is something which makes man self-reliant and selfless".
2. Upanishad: "Education is for liberation".
3. Bhagavad Gita: "Nothing is more purifying on earth than wisdom."
4. Shankaracharya: "Education is the realization of self'.
5. Gunrunner: "Education is self realization and service to people".
6. Kautilya: "Education means training of the country and love of the nation".
7. Panini: "Human education means the training which one gets from nature".
8. Vivekanand: “Education is the manifestation of the divine perfection, already existing in man."
9. Gandhi: "By education, I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in the Child and man body, mind and spirit."
10. Tagore: "The widest road leading to the solution of all our problems is education."
Concepts of Education as defined by Western philosophers.
1. Socrates: "Education means the bringing out of the ideas of universal validity which are latent in the mind of every man".
2. Plato: "Education is the capacity to feel pleasure and pain at the right moment. It develops in the body and in the soul of the pupil all the beauty and all the perfection which he is capable of."
3. Aristotle: "Education is the creation of a sound mind in a sound body. It develops man's faculty, especially his mind so that he may be able to enjoy the contemplation of supreme truth, goodness and beauty of which perfect happiness essentially consists.
4. Rousseau: "Education of man commences at his birth; before he can speak, before he can understand he is already instructed. Experience is the forerunner of the perfect".
5. Herbert Spencer: "Education is complete living".
6. Heinrich Pestalozzi: "Education is natural harmonious and progressive development of man's innate powers".
7. Friedrich Willian Froebel: "Education is unfoldment of what is already enfolded in the germ. It is the process through which the child makes internal external".
The following are key concepts/big ideas in science:

Science is evidence based

Scientific theories are based on evidence collected by making observations in the natural, physical world. These theories are supported, modified or replaced as new evidence appears. The search for evidence in science occurs through an inquiry process that blends human curiosity, imagination, logic and serendipity. It is strongly influenced by the ideas which people currently hold.

Scientific knowledge is provisional

Although reliable and durable, scientific knowledge is subject to change as scientists learn more about phenomena.

Scientists use theories and models to describe the natural and physical world

Scientists use simplified theories or models to describe the way the natural, physical world works. They use these models or theories to make predictions, test these predictions through experimentation and observation and use their results to revise and improve the models.

Science is influenced by society

Science is embedded in the culture of the times. Scientific views take into account contemporary values, ethics, economics and politics. Scientists work collaboratively and share their findings and build on the work of other scientists.
Technology is the collection of techniques, skills, methods and processes used in the production of goods or services or in the accomplishment of objectives, such as scientific investigation. Technology can be the knowledge of techniques, processes, etc. or it can be embedded in machines, computers, devices and factories, which can be operated by individuals without detailed knowledge of the workings of such things.
The concepts of technology include;
1) The value of a technique reflects the values of who make it and use it.
(2) Technology is optimistic in assigning value to "technological progress."
(3) Technology is value laded insofar as use of resources for advance may preclude their use in other work
that may improve life.
(4) The institutionalization of modern technology allows the direction of technology to be influenced
externally by companies rather than by practitioners
(5) Products of technology are expressions of individual and cultural values of designers

PURE AND APPLIED RESEARCH: THE PROCESS OF RESEARCH
-Introduction to research
-Research process
-Research proposals, research activities, research reports

What is Research?

Research: (1) Diligent and systematic inquiry or investigation into a subject in order to discover facts or principles.i
(2) A studious inquiry or examination, especially a critical investigation . . . having as its aim the discovery of new facts and their correct interpretation, the revision of accepted conclusions, theories, or laws in the light of new discovered facts,
or the practical application of such conclusions, theories or laws. New knowledge is created through research. Research is based on primary and secondary sources, often together with original data collected via research "instruments" (surveys, interviews, questionnaires, "focus groups," etc.) to produce new knowledge on a particular topic.

In addition to primary sources and original instruments, secondary sources are used to provide an overview of existing published knowledge on a topic, and possible current debates about the topic. The background provided by secondary sources provides a contextual background and establishes how the new knowledge described in a paper differs from what is already known.
Research may be categorized as either Basic or Applied:

• Basic research looks at causes, effects, and the nature of things
• Applied research trys to find answers and solutions to specific problems.

All research focuses on "solving problems" — at minimum,  answering the defined research question(s). Otherwise, research addresses the perceived "problem" of missing or inadequate information on a particular topic. Research might be further categorized as follows:

• Research as description
• Research as understanding trends and operations
• Research as explanation

The emphasis and methodology of research may differ between different fields and disciplines, particularly between the Sciences and the Humanities. However, most fields share the following concerns:

• Discovering the relevant "facts" of an event, issue, procedure, or problem;
• Reviewing and evaluating contrasting explanations for the topic being researched, especially explanations which may differ from what the current research has concluded;
• Reviewing the consensus (or lack of it) of the research findings among researchers;
• Disseminating the findings and conclusions for critical review.

Research is most often published (in academic or professional journals, in online archives, or as a "monograph") as a research "paper," though it may also be presented orally (at least initially) as a conference address, or even in "poster" format at a scholarly conference. When published as a "full research paper" it will usually include the following components.

Components of a Full Research Paper

Traditional, print-format "full research papers" usually include the following components, which represent the different stages of the research process. (The names and descriptions of these components may differ slightly from one academic discipline or paper "style" to another.)

1. Title page
2. Abstract (one paragraph or one page, as/if needed)
3. Introduction, or Problem Statement, or Problem Identification: what exactly is being researched and why; what the relevance or importance is; what questions will be addressed, and an overview of what conclusions will be drawn.
4. Background and Review of Existing Literature, including definitions of special terminology used in the paper
5. Research Methodology: What is Being Studied, and How: In this section the purpose and research questions or hypotheses are re-stated, and the exact nature of what is being researched and how (population and sampling) is defined, along with what instrumentation was used (copies of instruments should be included in Appendices). Also in this section are details on the procedure and time frame of the research, the analysis plan, the validity and reliability of the data used, the author's assumptions which are based on the research, and possible limitations to these assumptions, or other conclusions.
6. Data Collection: This presents the raw data collected via the research methodology described above.

7.Findings (Results and Analysis of Your data)

             A discussion of what you did and discovered, including why and how you feel it is significant.

8.  Conclusions: A summary of the nature and application of the "new knowledge" represented in your paper. Also included here are possible contraindications of your conclusions, along with proposed further research based on your findings (and the possible contraindications).

9  Discussion of 'Limitations': This section is increasingly a part of research articles published in academic journals. It is a separate section of the paper which describes real or potential faults with the methodology, research material, or other factors that could have influenced the research findings.

10  Works Cited, plus a review (where relevant) of related materials which were not cited

11  Appendices (if needed), for example to present research instruments which were employed (questionnaires, surveys, statistical data, etc.)

The Research Process

The research process is the step-by-step procedure of developing one's research — and research paper. However, one can seldom progress in a step-by-step fashion as such. Writing a research paper frequently requires continuous, and sometimes extensive, re-evaluation and revision of both one's topic and the way it is presented.

It is often necessary to revise an initial research plan. You may need to add new material, delete extraneous material, or even change the topic completely, depending on what is discovered during your research. You may find that your topic is too broad and needs to be narrowed, or that sufficient information resources may not be available (e.g. the topic is too narrow, and needs to be expanded or changed). Sometimes what you learn may not support the thesis with which you began.

The research process involves identifying, locating, assessing, analyzing, and then developing and expressing your ideas. These are the same skills that will be needed in the post-university "real world" when you produce reports, proposals, or the research for your employer. All of these activities will be based on primary and secondary sources from which recommendations or plans are formulated.

Identifying Your Research 'Problem' — the 'What' and 'Why'

For most researchers, identifying exactly what they are researching, and why, is the most difficult part of the entire process. It is not enough just to be interested in a subject and want to write about it. For a research paper, there has to be a particular reason why you are writing about it, a particular perspective you are taking, a particular aspect you will be covering, and a particular conclusion you will be drawing.

Compare, for example, the following (as discussed in class):

• The paper on The History, Art and Architecture of Tampere Cathedral (Valtonen, 2004), where a simple research question was posed and addressed;
• The paper on Donald Duck Comics as a Finnish Institution (Eskelinen, 2008), where questions were identified, a background was given, a research instrument (webform survey) was employed, and conclusions derived from the source material and independent research option were reached;

Questions to Consider When Determining a Research "Problem"

When examining a potential research topic, for instance when reviewing the different phenomena introduced in "action research" narratives and searching for an explanatory perspective, the following types of questions may be useful. They may help identify a "problem" to be researched, or a hypothesis to be applied to a problem.

• "What is actually happening in this situation"?
• "Would it still happen this way if ..."

• "In this conte xt, if X does this, would Y then ..."
• "What causes X to react to Y in this way"

More concretely, when reviewing possible research "problems," your questions could include the following [points 1-3 would be preliminary to posing a theoretical approach, with points 6-8 required to 'test' the theory. Points 4-5 develop the working theory (or hypothesis) itself]:

1. What bothers you about a particular "problem"? What information seems to be unclear, or incomplete, or missing, or improbable as stated?
2. What are the essential concepts and issues relevant to the problem?
3. Does the description or implementation of the problem vary? If so, how and why?
4. Can you state a relationship between the variables of your problem?
5. Can you hypothesize an answer?
6. Can you collect primary and secondary data to test the hypothesis?
7. Can you collect original data to further test the hypothesis?
8. Is the problem you identify part of a larger problem?

For example, briefly, how do the above questions apply to the paper on Recycling in Finland (using only one of several possible good examples available online — and bearing in mind that the paper was written before the questions in this document were available)?

Taking the above questions in order as they apply to the paper:

1. There seemed to be a problem with recycling in Finland. The Finnish population is highly educated and socially conscious. It has a well-developed respect for environmental concerns. Moreover, in recent years there has been extensive publicity.

What is a proposal?

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A proposal is a request for support of sponsored research, instruction, or extension projects. Good proposals quickly and easily answer the following questions:

• What do you want to do, how much will it cost, and how much time will it take?
• How does the proposed project relate to the sponsor's interests?
• What difference will the project make to: your university, your students, your discipline, the state, the nation, or any other concerned parties?
• What has already been done in the area of your project?
• How do you plan to do it?
• How will the results be evaluated?
• Why should you, rather than someone else, do this project?

These questions will be answered in different ways and receive different emphases depending on the nature of the proposed project and on the agency to which the proposal is being submitted. Most agencies provide detailed instructions or guidelines concerning the preparation of proposals (and, in some cases, forms on which proposals are to be typed); obviously, such guidelines should be studied carefully before you begin writing the draft.

Types of proposals

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Solicited proposals

Submitted in response to a specific solicitation issued by a sponsor. Such solicitations, typically called Request for Proposals (RFP), or Request for Quotations (RFQ), are usually specific in their requirements regarding format and technical content, and may stipulate certain award terms and conditions. Broad Agency Announcements (BAAs) are not considered formal solicitations.

Unsolicited proposals

Submitted to a sponsor that has not issued a specific solicitation but is believed by the investigator to have an interest in the subject.

Preproposals

Requested when a sponsor wishes to minimize an applicant's effort in preparing a full proposal. Preproposals are usually in the form of a letter of intent or brief abstract. After the preproposal is reviewed, the sponsor notifies the investigator if a full proposal is warranted.

Continuation or non-competing proposals

Confirm the original proposal and funding requirements of a multi-year project for which the sponsor has already provided funding for an initial period (normally one year). Continued support is usually contingent on satisfactory work progress and the availability of funds.

Renewal or competing proposals

Are requests for continued support for an existing project that is about to terminate, and, from the sponsor's viewpoint, generally have the same status as an unsolicited proposal.

Parts of a proposal

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Proposals for sponsored activities generally follow a similar format, although there are variations depending upon whether the proposer is seeking support for a research grant, a training grant, or a conference or curriculum development project. The following outline covers the primary components of a research proposal. Your proposal will be a variation on this basic theme.

1. Title Page: Most sponsoring agencies specify the format for the title page, and some provide special forms to summarize basic administrative and fiscal data for the project. Titles should be comprehensive enough to indicate the nature of the proposed work, but also be brief.
2. Abstract: The funder may use the abstract to make preliminary decisions about the proposal. An effective summary states the problem addressed by the applicant, identifies the solution, and specifies the objectives and methods of the project. This summary should also outline funding requirements and describe the applicant’s expertise.
3. Table of Contents: Very brief proposals with few sections ordinarily do not need a table of contents; the guiding consideration in this is the reader's convenience. Long and detailed proposals may require, in addition to a table of contents, a list of illustrations (or figures) and a list of tables. If all of these are included, they should follow the order mentioned, and each should be numbered with lower-case Roman numerals. The table of contents should list all major parts and divisions (including the abstract, even though it precedes the table of contents).
4. Introduction (including Statement of Problem, Purpose of Research, and Significance of Research): The introduction of a proposal should begin with a capsule statement of what is being proposed and then should proceed to introduce the subject to a stranger. It should give enough background to enable an informed layman to place your particular research problem in a context of common knowledge and should show how its solution will advance the field or be important for some other work. The statement describes the significance of the problem(s), referring to appropriate studies or statistics. 
5. Background (including Literature Survey): Be sure to (1) make clear what the research problem is and exactly what has been accomplished; (2) to give evidence of your own competence in the field; and (3) to show why the previous work needs to be continued. The literature review should be selective and critical. Discussions of work done by others should therefore lead the reader to a clear impression of how you will be building upon what has already been done and how your work differs from theirs. 
6. Description of Proposed Research (including Method or Approach): The comprehensive explanation of the proposed research is addressed not to laymen but to other specialists in your field. This section is the heart of the proposal and is the primary concern of the technical reviewers. Remember as you lay out the research design to (1) be realistic about what can be accomplished. (2) be explicit about any assumptions or hypotheses the research method rests upon. (3) be clear about the focus of the research. (4) be as detailed as possible about the schedule of the proposed work. (5) be specific about the means of evaluating the data or the conclusions. (6) be certain that the connection between the research objectives and the research method is evident. (7) spell out preliminary work developing an analytical method or laying groundwork as Phase 1. At the end of that phase you will be able to report that you have accomplished something and are ready to undertake Phase 2.
7. Description of Relevant Institutional Resources: In general this section details the resources available to the proposed project and, if possible, shows why the sponsor should select this University and this investigator for this particular research. Some relevant points may be the institution's demonstrated competence in the pertinent research area, its abundance of experts in related areas that may indirectly benefit the project, its supportive services that will directly benefit the project, and its unique or unusual research facilities or instruments available to the project. 
8. List of References: The style of the bibliographical item itself depends on the disciplinary field. The main consideration is consistency; whatever style is chosen should be followed scrupulously throughout. 
9. Personnel: This section usually consists of two parts: an explanation of the proposed personnel arrangements and the biographical data sheets for each of the main contributors to the project. The explanation should specify how many persons at what percentage of time and in what academic categories will be participating in the project. If the program is complex and involves people from other departments or colleges, the organization of the staff and the lines of responsibility should be made clear. Any student participation, paid or unpaid, should be mentioned, and the nature of the proposed contribution detailed. If any persons must be hired for the project, say so, and explain why, unless the need for persons not already available within the University is self-evident.
10. Budget: Sponsors customarily specify how budgets should be presented and what costs are allowable. The budget delineates the costs to be met by the funding source, including personnel, non-personnel, administrative, and overhead expenses. The budget also specifies items paid for by other funding sources. Includes justifications for requested expenditures. 

Research Reports

Research reports present the results of formal investigations into the properties, behavior, structures, and principles of material and conceptual entities. Almost any physical phenomenon or concept may be investigated in a research framework. 
The presentation of the research and its results in a rigorously formatted document that follows a conventional structure. In presenting your research, you pull all its elements together into a focused, coherent document. Research reports contain a standard set of elements that include.

RESEARCH ETHICS AND MALPRACTICES; INNOVATION, INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS

-Definitions

-Research ethics and malpractise

-Innovation

-intellectual property and intellectual property rights

When most people think of ethics (or morals), they think of rules for distinguishing between right and wrong, such as the Golden Rule ("Do unto others as you would have them do unto you"), a code of professional conduct like the Hippocratic Oath ("First of all, do no harm"), a religious creed like the Ten Commandments ("Thou Shalt not kill..."), or a wise aphorisms like the sayings of Confucius. This is the most common way of defining "ethics": norms for conduct that distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable behaviour.
There are several reasons why it is important to adhere to ethical norms in research;
First, norms promote the aims of research, such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error. For example, prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying, or misrepresenting research data promote the truth and minimize error.
Second, since research often involves a great deal of cooperation and coordination among many different people in different disciplines and institutions, ethical standards promote the values that are essential to collaborative work, such as trust, accountability, mutual respect, and fairness. For example, many ethical norms in research, such as guidelines for authorship, copyright and patenting policies, data sharing policies, and confidentiality rules in peer review, are designed to protect intellectual property interests while encouraging collaboration. Most researchers want to receive credit for their contributions and do not want to have their ideas stolen or disclosed prematurely.
Third, many of the ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be held accountable to the public. For instance, federal policies on research misconduct, conflicts of interest, the human subjects protections, and animal care and use are necessary in order to make sure that researchers who are funded by public money can be held accountable to the public.
The following is a rough and general summary of some ethical principles that various codes address*:

Honesty

Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly report data, results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. Do not deceive colleagues, research sponsors, or the public.

Objectivity

Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research where objectivity is expected or required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-deception. Disclose personal or financial interests that may affect research.

Integrity

Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought and action.

Carefulness

Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities, such as data collection, research design, and correspondence with agencies or journals.

Openness

Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.

Respect for Intellectual Property

Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give proper acknowledgement or credit for all contributions to research. Never plagiarize.

Confidentiality

Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.

Responsible Publication

Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.

Responsible Mentoring

Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them to make their own decisions.

Respect for colleagues

Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.

Social Responsibility

Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public education, and advocacy.

Non-Discrimination

Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors not related to scientific competence and integrity.

Competence

Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole.

Legality

Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.

Animal Care

Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.

Human Subjects Protection

When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions with vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the benefits and burdens of research fairly.
Research malpractise
What constitutes scientific misconduct? Different definitions are adopted by different institutions, but they all agree that ;
i) Fabrication (invention of data or cases),
ii) Falsification (wilful distortion of data or results) and
iii) Plagiarism (copying of ideas, data, or words without attribution) are serious forms of scientific misconduct.
Plagiarism is qualitatively different from the other two because it does not distort scientific knowledge, although it has important consequences for the careers of the people involved, and thus for the whole scientific enterprise.
Innovation
Innovation is defined simply as a "new idea, device, or method". However, innovation is often also viewed as the application of better solutions that meet new requirements, unarticulated needs, or existing market needs. This is accomplished through more-effective products, processes, services, technologies, or business models that are readily available to markets, governments and society. The term "innovation" can be defined as something original and more effective and, as a consequence, new, that "breaks into" the market or society. It is related to, but not the same as, invention.
While a novel device is often described as an innovation, in economics, management science, and other fields of practice and analysis, innovation is generally considered to be the result of a process that brings together various novel ideas in a way that they affect society. In industrial economics, innovations are created and found empirically from services to meet the growing consumer demand.
Asserts that innovations require only three things:
  recognized need,

  Competent people with relevant technology, and

  Financial support.^[2

Intellectual property and intellectual property rights
Intellectual property (IP) refers to creations of the intellect for which a monopoly is assigned to designated owners by law. Intellectual property rights (IPRs) are the protections granted to the creators of IP, and include trademarks, copyright, patents, industrial design rights, and in some jurisdictions trade secrets. Artistic works including music and literature, as well as discoveries, inventions, words, phrases, symbols, and designs can all be protected as intellectual property.
While intellectual property law has evolved over centuries, it was not until the 19th century that the term intellectual property began to be used, and not until the late 20th century that it became commonplace in the majority of the world.

Intellectual property rights

Intellectual property rights include patents, copyright, industrial design rights, trademarks, plant variety rights, trade dress, and in some jurisdictions trade secrets. There are also more specialized or derived varieties of sui generis exclusive rights, such as circuit design rights (called mask work rights in the US) and supplementary protection certificates for pharmaceutical products (after expiry of a patent protecting them) and database rights (in European law).

Patent

A patent is a form of right granted by the government to an inventor, giving the owner the right to exclude others from making, using, selling, offering to sell, and importing an invention for a limited period of time, in exchange for the public disclosure of the invention. An invention is a solution to a specific technological problem, which may be a product or a process and generally has to fulfil three main requirements: it has to be new, not obvious and there needs to be an industrial applicability.

Copyright

A copyright gives the creator of an original work exclusive rights to it, usually for a limited time. Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or "works". Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed.

 Industrial design right

An industrial design right (sometimes called "design right") protects the visual design of objects that are not purely utilitarian. An industrial design consists of the creation of a shape, configuration or composition of pattern or color, or combination of pattern and color in three-dimensional form containing aesthetic value. An industrial design can be a two- or three-dimensional pattern used to produce a product, industrial commodity or handicraft.

Plant varieties/ Plant breeders' rights

Plant breeders' rights or plant variety rights are the rights to commercially use a new variety of a plant. The variety must amongst others be novel and distinct and for registration the evaluation of propagating material of the variety is examined.

 Trademark

A trademark is a recognizable sign, design or expression which distinguishes products or services of a particular trader from the similar products or services of other traders.

Trade dress

Trade dress is a legal term of art that generally refers to characteristics of the visual appearance of a product or its packaging (or even the design of a building) that signify the source of the product to consumers.

Trade secret

A trade secret is a formula, practice, process, design, instrument, pattern, or compilation of information which is not generally known or reasonably ascertainable, by which a business can obtain an economic advantage over competitors or customers.

NATURAL RESOURCES AND THEIR DERIVATIVES IN ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Natural resources, which are raw materials occurring in nature, serve as the foundation for economic production and consumption. By managing natural resources wealth carefully, governments can achieve sustainable development and growth.

Relations between Natural Resources and Economic Performances
The main challenge in this strand of literature is to understand how natural resources abundance can affect negatively growth. Gylfason (2001b) identifies four main channels of transmission that can be described as crowding out effects. Natural resources tend to crowd out other forms of capital.
i) Dutch Disease and foreign capital: The Dutch Disease theory was developed in the 1970’s to explain economic difficulties the Netherlands had to face after the discovery of natural gas in the North Sea. The main idea of the Corden and Neary model (1982) is that natural resource abundance (discovery and/or a price increase) causes an overvaluation of national currency. Non mineral exports suffer from a decrease of their competitiveness. It is particularly true for the industrial sector which generates learning by doing processes and positive externalities (Matsuyama, 1992). Fluctuations in exports earnings trigger exchange rate volatility which creates uncertainty that can be harmful to exports of goods and services and other forms of trade including foreign direct investment.
ii) Saving, Investment and physical capital : Natural resources can have a negative effect on
economic growth if they reduce incentives to save and to invest. Natural capital generates a false sense of security, it is a form of wealth alternative to the wealth resulting from the accumulation of physical capital in the industrial sector. Gylfason and Zoega (2001) show that when the share of the primary sector in GDP increases, the demand for capital is reduced and this leads to lower interest rates and less rapid economic growth. Natural resources can also impede investment if they retard financial development. The level of investment is important but we have also to take into account the quality of projects which is generally low in resource-rich countries (the “white elephants”).
iii) Education and human capital : For Gylfason, Herbertsson and Zoega (1999) and Gylfason
(2001a), economic agents tend to underestimate the long term benefits of education when they benefit from natural resources revenues. In resource-rich countries, public spending on education and school enrollment rates are lower than in resource-poor countries. On the contrary, for Stijns (2006), natural resources can promote education. His main point is that Gylfason’s results are not very robust because of his measure of natural resource abundance (the share of natural capital in national wealth). In a previous work, we showed that natural rents from point resources are
negatively related to public spending on education and school enrollment rates (Philippot, 2010).
iv) Social Capital and Institutional quality : This channel is probably the most studied in the
literature. For several authors, the curse of natural resources is a pure institutional phenomenon. As an example, Sala-I-Martin and Subramanian (2003) identify a negative effect of natural resources on economic growth but this relationship does not hold anymore when they control for institutional quality. For Moene, Mehlum and Torvik (2006), natural resources are a “blessing” if institutions are “good” that is to say in favor of productive activities. On the contrary, natural resources become a curse if institutions tend to favor rent-seeking activities. Several mechanisms link natural resource abundance and institutional quality among them we find colonial heritage, rent-seeking models, development of corruption, political instability, civil wars, bad quality of economic policies.

The principal factor affecting the devt of an economy is the natural resources or land. Land as used in economics includes natural rsources such as the fertility of land, its situation and composition, forest wealth, minerals, climate, water resources and sea resources.

For economic growth, the existence of natural resources in abundance is essential. In LDCs, narutural rsources are either unutilised, underutilised or misutilised.The presence of abundant resources is not sufficient for economic growth.What is required is their proper exploitation.

Natural resources can be developed through improved technology and increase in knowledge.

It is said’ The value of a resource depends upon its usefulness, and its usefulness is changing all the time through changes in tastes, technique or new discovery.’

It is often said that economic growth is possible even when an economy is deficient in natural resources..E.g Japan is one such country which is deficient in natural resources but it is one of the advanced countries of the world because it has been able to discover new uses for the limited resources. Moreover, by importing certain raw materials and minerals from other countries,it has been successful in overcoming the deficiencyof its natural resources through superior technology, new researche,,and higher knowledge.Similarly,Britain has developed without non-ferrousmetals.

Thus for economic growth the existence of abundant natural resources is not enough. What is essential is their proper exploitation through improved techniques so that there is little wastage and they could be utilised for a longer time.

ROLE OF NATURAL RESOURCES IN ECONOMIC DEVT

I) N at u r a l  Ca p i ta l  a n d  t h e  E c o n o m i c S y s t e m
 depicts the basic relationship between physical, human and natural capital and the
economic system.
Human-made, or physical, capital (KP), natural capital (KN) and human capital (KH) all contribute to human welfare through supporting the production of goods and services in the economic process. For example, KP, consists of machinery, equipment, factory buildings, tools and
other investment goods that are used in production; KN is used for material and energy inputs
into production, acts as a “sink” for waste emissions from the economic process, and provides
a variety of “ecological services” to sustain production, such as nutrient recycling, watershed
protection and catchment functions, and climate regulation; and KH in ncludes the human skillS.

Economic development

Economic development implies activities or processes whose end products are generally to increase in production and wealth, which in turns, reflects general improvement in the quality of living standard of the populace. Economic development is therefore, desirable process. However, various by-products of economic development such as urbanization and industrialization with attendant production of industrial wastes, noxious assess, refuse and other solid wastes, raw domestic sewage, crude oil spillage and pollution and agricultural pollutants cause serious reduction in environmental quality. These also affect health well being of the people and hence productivity.

Contribution of Natural Resources-Natural Capital (and other Capital Resources) to Economic Development

Human-made, or physical, capital ( K_P), natural capital (K_N) and human capital (K_H) all contribute to human welfare through supporting the production of goods and services in the economic process.

For example,

(i) K_P, consists of machinery, equipment, factory buildings, tools and other investment goods that are used in production;

(ii) K_N is used for material and energy inputs into production, acts as a “sink” for waste emissions from the economic process, and provides a variety of “ecological services” to sustain production, such as nutrient recycling, watershed protection and catchment functions, and climate regulation; and

(iii) KH includes the human skills necessary for advanced production processes and for research and development activities that lead to technical innovation.

All three forms of capital also contribute directly to human welfare independently of their contributions through the economic process. For instance, 

(i) Included in physical capital, K_P, is fine architecture and other physical components of cultural heritage; 

(ii) K_N includes aesthetically pleasing natural landscapes, and provides a variety of ecological services that are essential for supporting life; and

(iii) Increases in K_H also contribute more generally to increases in the overall stock of human knowledge.

Natural Capital and Sustainable Development

The importance of the total capital stock concept to sustainability is illustrated in Figure 2, which summarises broadly the economic view of sustainable development.

The World Commission on Environment and Development (the WCED, or Brundtland Commission (WCED) defined sustainable development as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (WCED 1987). An increase in well-being today should not have as its consequences a reduction in well-being tomorrow. That is, future generations should be entitled to at least the same level of economic opportunities – and thus at least the same level of economic welfare – as currently available to present generations. Consequently, economic development today must ensure that future generations are left no worse off than present generations. Or, as some economists have succinctly put it, per capita welfare should not be declining over time.

 

Development that meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generation to meet their needs

                                              Welfare does not decline over time

                       Require managing and enhancing a portfolio of economic assets

                                                      TOTAL CAPITAL STOCK

                                                                                                      

As noted in Figure 2, it is the total stock of capital employed by the economic system, including natural capital that determines the full range of economic opportunities, and thus well-being, available to both present and future generations. Society must decide how best to “use” its total capital stock today to increase current economic activities and welfare, and how much it needs to “save” or even “accumulate” for tomorrow, and ultimately, for the well-being of future generations.

4. APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY AND TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER

Appropriate technology is a grass roots approach to technology that builds a strong sense of community and encompasses benefits that span across social, environmental, cultural, economic, and spiritual facets.

 Appropriate technology is not a one size fits all approach, but rather adapts to best fit the community in which it is developed. Appropriate technology best fits with the community it serves because it is created by the people to meet a need. Therefore, the communities are placed at the centre of decision making and create technologies that will best serve their communities in the long term.

The Importance of Appropriate Technology: Appropriate technology is important due to its holistic nature.

1.      It permits local needs to be met more effectively through community involvement, and for this reason it tends to be aligned with local values and traditions.

2.       AT utilizes human labour by developing tools rather than machines. This enables people to self-organize without complicated management training and specialized knowledge.

3.      It minimizes transport of goods in an era of expensive and environmentally harmful energy, allowing greater local industry participation and implementation of local resources, both human and material.

4.       AT reinforces local control which provides a cushion against the effects of outside economic changes.

5.      It establishes a self-sustaining skill base and reduces economic, social and political dependency between individuals, regions and nations.AT recognizes the will of local people to act on their own behalves, and is a technology made by and for the people.

EVALUATION CRITERIA FOR APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY

1. Ability of technology to stand alone without additional support systems

 2. Individual versus collective technology, with regard to which one the culture values

3. Cost of technology which takes into account full costs to social, economic, and environmental impacts

4. The risk factor including internal risks, that relate to the fit in local production systems and external risks, which relate to the needed support systems

5. Evolutionary capacity of technology, with regard to its capability of being reconfigured to grow with the society it benefits, whereby solving different problems that the community encounters

6. Single-purpose versus multi-purpose technology, where the latter refers to technology that has the ability to complete different tasks at the same time.

Transfer of technology is more than just the moving of high-tech equipment from the developed to the developing world, or within the developing world. Moreover, it encompasses far than equipment and other so-called “hard” technologies, for it also includes total systems and their component parts, including know-how, goods and services, equipment, and organizational and managerial procedures.

The Seven “C”s for the Transfer and Uptake of Environmentally Sound Technologies
Context Technology transfer does not take place in a vacuum. The performance of a given technology is dependent on a wide range of factors, making identification of an environmentally sound or otherwise appropriate technology somewhat problematic. For example, a technology that is assessed to be environmentally sound in a given locale, culture, economic setting or stage in its life cycle may not be in another.

Challenges There are many barriers to successful technology transfer. All along the transfer path, from the supply side of technology transfer (the innovators and developers) to the demand side (the recipients and users), impediments occur at every node and, due to restrictions on the movement of information and materials, for every linkage in the technology transfer chain. Examples of challenges include shortfalls in technology creation and innovation, underperformance in technology sourcing, sub- optimal enabling environments, and insufficient and unverified information. Small and medium enterprises are disproportionately impacted by these challenges.
Choice A key aim of barrier removal, that is of facilitating technology transfer, is ensuring that technology recipients and users are able to make informed choices by being able to identify and procure the most appropriate (in environmental and preferably also in economic and social terms) technology for a given application in a given locale.

Certainty A lack of certainty, and the consequential high levels of risk, both real and perceived, are recognized as major impediments to the successful establishment and ongoing operation of functional markets for ESTs. The common perception that many ESTs are “emerging”, and hence “unproven”, means there is little confidence in their economic, commercial or technical viability. Removing barriers to technology transfer often translates into increased certainty, and decreased risks, for the key stakeholders such as the developers, suppliers, financiers, insurers, recipients and regulators. One example is ensuring access to sufficient, verified information. Risk assessment and management capabilities for financial institutions are also of special importance.

Communication The technology transfer chain is often long, in terms of both distance and time. Effective communication is thus another essential ingredient in the recipe for successful technology transfer.

Capacity Enhancing the transfer of technologies that support sustainable development is largely about creating favourable circumstances for technology transfer – ensuring all stakeholders have the ability (potential and realised) to fulfil their roles and meet their responsibilities, expeditiously. Generally speaking, government is the principal player in creating an enabling environment for technology transfer, but financial and insurance institutions and international organizations can also be influential.

Commitment If there is to be an improvement on the last decade or so, where technology transfer failed to deliver the anticipated and much needed advances in development and sustainability, we must make a commitment to overcoming the challenges, providing technology users with the choice they deserve and desire, increase certainty, thereby reducing risks, enhancing communication between technology transfer stakeholders and building and strengthening the enabling environment and thus the capacity for technology transfer.

Six main steps in technology transfer have been identified:

ƒ establishment of cooperative and collaborative partnerships between key stake-holders, with the common purpose of enhancing technology transfer;

ƒ implementation of technology needs assessments;

 ƒ participation in the processes of technology creation, development and adaptation

 ƒ design and implementation of technology transfer plans and specific actions;

ƒ evaluation and refinement of the actions and plans; and ƒ dissemination of technology information

ROLE OF GOVERNMENT IN RESEARCH, SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT

While recognizing that the modern innovation process is not linear, the private sector still organizes its commercialization investment decisions by addressing discrete, pragmatic technology and market interaction questions to assess profit potential. Typically, as a minimum, four questions must be answered affirmatively:
• Is the technology a solution, or a better solution, to a market, need? (Right technology)
• Is the market for the technology large enough? (Right market size)- points to the revenue or profit potential that may be achievable once the product is fully developed and commercialized.
• Is the cost of bringing the technology to market sufficiently low? (Right cost of commercialization)- cost of market entry.” That cost varies depending upon the characteristics of the technology and the characteristics of the target market. But, the cost of research, development, and demonstration is often small compared to the other costs
required to bring the demonstrated technology to commercial reality in the marketplace. I
• Is the technology performance, market, and commercialization cost certain enough? (Right market certainty)- Uncertainties due to such risks as technology obsolescence, competition, and changing regulations or government policy may significantly change the end result.

Appropriate Roles for Government in Technology Deployment

Information and Education
• Information dissemination
• Outreach
• Education and training
• Technical assistance
• Technology transfer
Collaboration
• Information exchanges
• Collaboration
• Stakeholder facilitation
• Business matchmaking
• Alliances and partnerships
Technology Development
• Scientific research
• Technology development
• Technology demonstration
• Intellectual property management
• Market solutions

Policy
• Policy information, education, and training
• Policy analysis, policy design
• Policy implementation (e.g., regulations,
grants, assistance, sector reform, etc.)
Market Development
• Market assessment and analysis
• Market conditioning
• Barrier removal
• Standards development
• Trade development and export assistance
• Economic development
• Federal sector procurement (early adopter)
• Business incubators and small business
assistance
• Financing mechanisms, financial assistance,
incentives, cost buy-down, and other subsidies
• Support marketplace deployment transactions

Perhaps more important, at least over the long term, is that the government is becoming involved in the nation's R&D enterprise in other important ways, beyond simply doing or funding research. These include regulating the fruits of research through patents, copyrights, and antitrust law; regulating science-and-technology-intensive industries such as health care, telecommunications, energy, and transportation; being a major consumer of the products of R&D and of technology; and sponsoring and otherwise influencing the education of scientists and engineers and of the general public about science and technology, the latter being perhaps the most difficult challenge of the new millennium.

The bottom line is that government is a big player in the nation's science and technology enterprise and will remain so regardless of what is happening right now in Washington. But, the nature of that involvement is changing dramatically. Regrettably, an unfocused desire for change seems to be driving some of the current discussion about U.S. science and technology policy, for example that related to the fate of the national laboratories and the deregulation of some industries.

Government will continue to do and sponsor a great deal of research. The recent trend toward tightening spending at all levels of government, however, is affecting the kinds of decisions being made by many research, development, and engineering enterprises. Some months ago, in the heat of the debate over the federal budget, Sen. Pete Domenici (R-N.M.) wrote a letter to Science magazine on this subject (Domenici, 1997) that captured the current national fiscal dilemma quite well.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987, p 43). Sustainable development is generally
thought to have three components: environment, society, and economy.

Sustainable development has three components: environment, society, and economy. If you consider the three to be overlapping circles of the same size, the area of overlap in the center is human well-being. As the environment, society, and economy become more aligned, the area of overlap increases, and so does human well-being.

Principles of Sustainable Development
Many governments and individuals have pondered what sustainable development
means beyond a simple one-sentence definition. The Rio Declaration on Environment and
Development fleshes out the definition by listing 18 principles of sustainability.
• People are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature.
• Development today must not undermine the development and environment needs of
present and future generations.
• Nations have the sovereign right to exploit their own resources, but without causing
environmental damage beyond their borders.
• Nations shall develop international laws to provide compensation for damage that
activities under their control cause to areas beyond their borders.
• Nations shall use the precautionary approach to protect the environment. Where
there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, scientific uncertainty shall not be
used to postpone cost-effective measures to prevent environmental degradation.
• In order to achieve sustainable development, environmental protection shall
constitute an integral part of the development process, and cannot be considered in
isolation from it. Eradicating poverty and reducing disparities in living standards in
different parts of the world are essential to achieve sustainable development and
meet the needs of the majority of people.
• Nations shall cooperate to conserve, protect and restore the health and integrity of
the Earth’s ecosystem. The developed countries acknowledge the responsibility that
they bear in the international pursuit of sustainable development in view of the
pressures their societies place on the global environment and of the technologies
and financial resources they command.

• The polluter should, in principle, bear the cost of pollution.
• Nations shall warn one another of natural disasters or activities that may have harmful
transboundary impacts.
• Sustainable development requires better scientific understanding of the problems.
Nations should share knowledge and innovative technologies to achieve the goal of
sustainability.
• The full participation of women is essential to achieve sustainable development. The
creativity, ideals and courage of youth and the knowledge of indigenous people are
needed too. Nations should recognize and support the identity, culture and interests
of indigenous people.
• Warfare is inherently destructive of sustainable development, and Nations shall
respect international laws protecting the environment in times of armed conflict, and
shall cooperate in their further establishment.
• Peace, development and environmental protection are interdependent and indivisible

Global sustainable development challenges post-2015

Continuation of current development strategies will not suffi to achieve
sustainable development beyond 2015. Moreover, relying on “business as usual” scenarios
presents clear risks, because evidence is mounting that:
(a) Th impact of climate change threatens to escalate in the absence of adequate
safeguards and there is a need to promote the integrated and sustainable
management of natural resources and ecosystems and take mitigation and
adaptation action in keeping with the principle of common but diffrentiated
responsibilities;
(b) Hunger and malnourishment, while decreasing in many developing countries,
remain persistent in other countries, and food and nutrition security continues
to be an elusive goal for too many;
(c) Income inequality within and among many countries has been rising and has
reached an extremely high level, invoking the spectre of heightened tension
and social conflct;
(d) Rapid urbanization, especially in developing countries, calls for major changes
in the way in which urban development is designed and managed, as well as
substantial increases of public and private investments in urban infrastructure
and services;
(e) Energy needs are likely to remain unmet for hundreds of millions of households, unless signifiant progress in ensuring access to modern energy services
is achieved;
(f) Recurrence of fiancial crises needs to be prevented and the fiancial system
has to be redirected towards promoting access to long-term fiancing for investments required to achieve sustainable development.

Education for sustainable development